vi.xvVn!ava.MA>0MCO)CMf 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING: 


INCLUDING 


THE  NATURE,  OBJECT,  AND  LAWS  OF  EDUCA- 
TION, METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION,  AND 
METHODS   OF   CULTURE. 


ALBERT    N.   RAUB,   Ph.D., 

Principal  of  the  Central  State  Normal  School,  Lock  Hiiren,  Pa.,  and  Author 
of  "Lessons  in  English"  "Practical  JEi^glish   Grammnr,"  "Tests 
in  Spelling  and   PronunciatUm"   "Studies  in  English  and 
American  Literature"  " School  Management"  etc. 


PHILADELPHIA : 

E.    L.    RAUB    &    CO. 

1893. 


Copyright, 

ALBERT  N.   RAUB,  PH.D.. 

1883. 


gDUCAT!0^"  DEFT 


Wm.    R  utter    a    Co.. 

book  manufactukers, 

Seventh  anp  Cherry  Streets,  Phila. 


PREFACE. 


The  aim  of  the  author  in  preparing  this  work  has 
been  to  write  a  book  which  woukl  commend  itself  to  all 
progressive  teachers  for  its  practical  value.  He  has 
endeavored  to  present  only  such  methods  as  have  proved 
valuable  in  practice,  and  such  as  every  young  teacher 
will  be  safe  in  adopting.  ^Yhere  a  method  has  seemed 
to  him  either  unphilosophical  or  of  little  value  in  prac- 
tice, the  author  has  not  failed  to  condemn  it,  however 
eminent  the  theorists  who  have  been  its  advocates. 

The  book  is  desio-ned  not  onlv  as  a  textbook  for  the 
use  of  Normal  Schools  and  Normal  Classes,  but  also  as 
a  handbook  for  the  use  of  students  who  are  preparing 
to  teach,  but  have  not  an  opportunity  of  taking  a  course 
of  professional  instruction.  It  is  designed  also  to  afford 
lielp  to  those  who  are  already  engaged  in  teaching,  and 
are  desirous  of  improvement  by  professional  reading. 

"While  the  author  has  followed  a  systematic  arrange- 
ment which  will  make  the  work  desirable  as  a  class- 
room textbook,  he  has  at  the  same  time  kept  steadily  in 


4  PREFACE. 

view  the  wants  of  the  earnest  teacher  seeking  for  prac- 
tical methods  in  a  condensed  form.  To  such  the  sugges- 
tions appended  to  the  discussions  of  the  various  topics 
will  be  of  special  value  and  importance. 

The  author  believes  in  applying  the  crucial  test  of 
school-room  work  under  its  ordinary  conditions  to  every 
educational  theory,  whether  new  or  old,  and  proving  its 
value  or  its  wortlilessness  there  rather  than  on  the  lec- 
turer's platform  or  in  a  pedagogical  treatise.  He  there- 
fore hopes  that  the  methods  here  advocated  may  be 
submitted  to  the  actual  test  of  the  class-room,  believing 
that  if  they  are  judiciously  used  the  teacher  who  employs 
them  M-ill  meet  with  success.  A    N    E, 

State  Normal  School,  Lock  Haven,  Pa.,  | 
February  15,  1883.  ' 


CONTENTS. 


PART  I. 

GENERAL  NATURE  OF  EDUCATION. 

CHAPTER  I. 

PAGB 

The  Nature  AXD  Object  OP  Education 11 

Definition  of  Terms 15 

CHAPTER  II. 

Educational  Laws 17 

Law  1.   The  Human  Mind  Embraces  a  Number  of  Distinct 

Faculties ^^     I 

Law  n.  The  Faculties  of  the  Mind  Develop  in  a  Fixed  Order  20  >* 

Law  in.  iSelf-Activiiy  is  a  Law  of  Mental  Growth 22 

Law  IV.  The  Mind  is  both  Acquisitive  and  I^rotluctive   ...  23 
Law  V.  Human  Eeings  are  Created  with  Different  Tastes  and 

Talents 25 

Law  VI.  The  Human  Mind  is  Finite 26 

CHAPTER  III. 
Forms  of  Instruction 27 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Important  Educational  Principles 30 

1.  Instruction  and  Culture  are  Mutually  Dependent 30 

2.  Culture  is  more  Valuable  tiian  Knowledge 30 

3.  Exercise  is  Necessary  to  Culture 31 

4.  The  Order  of  Instruction  must  Correspond  to  the  Order  of 

Growth 31 

5.  The  Order  of  Instruction  must  be  from  tlie  Concrete  to  the 

Abstract 38 

6.  All  Primary  Instruction  must  Proceed  from  the  Known  to 

the  Unknown 39 

7.  Instruction  should  First  be  Inductive,  then  Deductive  .    .  39 

8.  Ideas  should  be  Taught  before  Words 40 

9.  Observation  is  the  Source  of  all  Knowledge 40 

10.  The  Age  and  the  Capacity  of  the  Pupil  should  Modify  the 

Methods  of  Teaching 41 

6 


6     •  CONTENTS. 

PART  II. 
METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTIOK 


OBJECT-LESSOXS. 

PACK 

1.  The  Nature  and  Design  of  Object- Lessons 42 

2.  Tlie  History  of  Obj.-ct-Teaching 43 

3.  Tiie  Advantages  of  Object-Lessons 44 

4.  The  Preparation  Needed  for  Object-Lessons 48 

5.  Metbods  of  Object-Lessons 50 

6.  Preliminary  instruction 52 

7.  Cautions  to  be  Regarded 53 

Lessons  on  Form 55 

Lessons  in  Color 57 

Objects  and  their  Parts 63 

Qualities  of  Objects " 66 


LANGUAGE. 
Learning  to  Talk 68 

CHAPTER  I. 

Kkadixo 70 

I.  Objects  of  Learning  to  Read 71 

II.  Methods  for  Bee:inners 72 

1.  Tlie  Alphabetic  Method 74 

2.  The  AVord-Building  Method 75 

3.  The  Word  Method 76 

4.  The  Object  Method 76 

5.  Tlie  Phonic  Method 79 

G.  Tiie  Phonetic  Method 80 

7.  The  Sentence  Metiiod 81 

8.  The  Group  ]\Iethod _ 82 

Suggestions  on  Teacliing  Primary  Reading  ....    85 

III.  The  Vocal  Element  in  Reading 101 

Quality >01 

Em})hasis 103 

Force 104 

Phch 106 

Inilections 108 

Rate .  109 

Pauses :*•■•. ^^^ 

General  Suggestions  on  Teaching  Reading  .    .    .    .112 

Errors  to  be  Avoided 116 

Rules  for  Reading 121 


CONTENTS.  7 

CHAPTEK  n.  PACK 

The  Alphabet 122 

I.  Metliods  of  Teaching  the  Alphabet 123 

1.  The  ABC  Metliod 123 

2.  The  Word  Method 126 

II.  Suggestions  on  Teaching  the  Alphabet 128 

CHAPTER  III. 

Orthography 130 

1.  Tlie  Importance  of  Learning  to  Spell 130 

2.  DifEculties  in  tlie  Way  of  Teaching  Orthography   ....  132 

3.  Metliods  of  Recitation 133 

1.  The  Oral  Method 133 

Variations  of  tlie  Oral  Method 134 

Cautions  on  Oral  Spelling 13(5 

2.  The  Written  Method 137 

Variations  of  the  Written  Method 139 

4.  Preparation  for  the  Recitation 142 

6.  General  Suggestions  on  Teaching  Spelling 143 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Pkonunciatiox I''i5 

I.  Difficulties  in  tlie  Way  of  Teaching  Pronunciation   .    .    .  156 

II.  Methods  of  Teaching  Pronunciation 157 

1.  The  Associative  Method 157 

2.  The  Alphabetic  Method 158 

3.  The  Phonic  Method    .    .    .    . 160 

III.  Suggestions  on  Teaching  Pronunciation 162 

IV.  Articulation 163 

Methods  of  Teaching  Articulation 164 

Suggestions  on  Teaching  Articulation 165' 

V.  Accent 166 

Methods  of  Teaching  Accent 167 

Suggestions  on  Teaching  Accent 168 

CHAPTER  V. 

Lexicology 170 

Suggestions  on  Teaching  Lexicology 173 

CHAPTER  VI. 

Language-Lessons  and  Grammar 177 

I.  Principles 178 

U.  Methods 181 

First  Lessons 181 

Subdivisions  of  Parts  of  Speech 196 

Modifications  of  Parts  of  Speech ,    .  207 

HI.  General  Suggestions  on  Language-Culture 222 

IV.  Gramiuaiical  Analysis 224 


S  CONTEXTS. 

Written  Analysis 224 

Directions  for  Written  Analysis 227 

Principles  of  Analysis 232 

^letliods  of  Analysis 232 

V.  Parsing 234 

VI.  Syntax 238 

Topical  Teaching 243 

Teclniical  Grammar 243 

Words  and  tlieir  Fnnctions 244 

Illnsiraiing  tlie  Uses  of  Words 244 

VII.  Suggestions  on  Teacliing  Grammar 245 

CHAPTER  VII. 

Co^rposITION■ 248 

I.  Tiie  Advantages  of  Teaciiing  Composition 248 

II.  jMetiiods  of  Teaching  Composition 249 

II  I.  Tile  I'ian 2o0 

IV.  Sugge:>tious  on  Composition 2o5 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

Rhetoric 260 

1.  Divisions  of  Rhetoric 2G1 

2.  I)icti(m 201 

3.  Fi.unres 2GI 

4.  Versilication 262 

5.  Pmse  Composition 203 

6.  Punctuation 263 

7.  Riietorical  Essays 264 

CHAPTER  IX. 

English  Literature 265 

I.  Fii-st  Steps  in  Literature • 265 

11.  Studies  in  Literature 267 

III.  History  of  Literature 268 


MATHEMATICS. 

CHAPTER  L 

The  Value  of  Mathematical  Studies 270 

CHAPTER  II. 

Arithmetic 272 

1.  Methods 272 

11.  Principles  Governing  the  Teaching  of  Arithmetic    .    .   .  274 

Tlie  Plan 277 

Counting 277 

Notaticn  and  Numeration ,  278 


coxTE2as.  ••■  ■  '■  ■   & 

Integers -...''  J.  i .,  .'  "iiO'- 

Addkion 280 

Subtraction 282 

Multiplication 284 

Division 286 

The  (irube  Method 2S8 

Factoring 289 

Fractions 290 

Reduction  of  Fractions 290 

Addition  and  Subtraction  of  Tractions 294 

IMultipUcation 295 

Division 296 

Decimal  Fractions 293 

Denominate  Numbers 299 

Longitude  and  Time 300 

Katio  and  Proportion 301 

I'ercentage 302 

Cjeueral  Suggestions  on  Teaching  Arithmetic    .    .  303 


CHAPTER  III. 

Algerha '. 310 

Atlditinn * 315 

Siditraciion 316 

Multiplication 320 

I)ivisi()n 3"-ll 

Fractions 322 

Factoring 322 

Radicals     .    ._ 323 

Literal  Equations. 324 

The  Force  of  Signs 324 

Suggestions  on  Teaching  Algebra 325 


CIL\PTER  IV. 

GEojrETRY 327 

Methods  of  Teacliing  Geometry 328 

fieometrical  Truths 331 

The  Science  of  C^eometry 385 

Suggestions  oa  Teaching  Geometry 337 


PHYSICAL  SCIENCE. 


CHAPTER  L 

The  Elements  of  Pitysicai,  Science 339 

I.  The  Value  of  Physical  Science 340 

IL  The  Sciences  to  be  Taught 344 

III.  Suggestions  on  Teaching  Physical  Science 345 


10  CONTENTS. 


cc  c 


r  '',..,  .      '■  ■''                CHAPTER  IL  PAGB 

GEOGRAPny 353 

Metliods  of  Teaching  Geography 354: 

The  Plan  of  Teaching 357 

Suggestions  on  Teaching  Geography 369 

CILiPTEE   III. 

ITiSTORY 378 

I.  Difficulties  in  the  AVay  of  Teaching  History 378 

11.  Metliods  of  Teacliing  History 379 

Principles 380 

Essentials  in  Teaching  History 382 

^Methods  of  Kecitation 38G 

Preparation  for  the  Kecitation 388 

HI.  Suggestions  on  Teaching  History 389 


THE   ARTS. 

CHAPTER  I. 

pENMAxsnip 393 

The  Ends  to  be  Secured  in  Teaching  Penmanship 394 

Suggestions  on  Penmanship 394 

CIL\PTER  II. 

Drawing 400 

Suggestions  on  Teaching  Drawing 400 

CHAPTER  III. 

VocAi,  Music 404 

Suggestions  on  Vocal  Music 404 


PART  III. 

METHODS  OF  CULTUEE. 

How  to  Secure  and  Hold  Attention 406 

Culture  of  Perception 408 

Culture  of  Memory 410 

Culture  of  Imagination 412 

Culture  of  Understanding 414 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING. 


PAET  I. 

GENERAL  NATURE  OF  EDUCATION. 


CHAPTER  I. 

The  Nature  and  Object  of  Education. 

Teaching,  in  the  modern  acceptation  of  the  term, 
embraces  both  culture  and  instruction.  It  includes  not 
only  educational  training,  but  also  the  imparting  of 
knowledge ;  the  term  is  therefore  synonymous  with  the 
"word  education.  Formerly,  the  word  "  teachino;"  sio-ni- 
fied  substantially  the  same  as  the  word  "  instruction," 
and  therefore  included  only  the  imj^arting  of  know- 
ledge. 

Education. — The  term  education  is  derived  from  the 
Latin  educo,  educare,  to  foster,  to  feed,  to  teach.  Its 
primary  signification,  like  that  of  the  word  "  teaching," 
was  more  limited  than  its  present  meaning.  By  some 
writers  the  word  "teaching"  has  been  applied  to  the 
training  of  the  intellectual  nature  alone,  while  the  term 
"education"  has  been  applied  to  the  culture  of  man's 
moral  nature. 

11 


■    12 METHODS   OF   TE ACHING. 

'■'"-'•■  'It'Js  blaimed  that  education  is  both  a  science  and  an 
art.  As  a  science  it  investigates,  classifies,  and  formu- 
lates the  laws  which  govern  the  physical  and  mental  ac- 
tions of  mankind.  As  an  art  it  applies  such  means  and 
methods  as  impart  the  most  profitable. instruction  in  the 
manner  best  suited  to  give  both  mind  and  body  the  most 
valuable  culture. 

The  process  of  education  involves  three  elements — 
Man,  or  the  object  to  be  educated ;  Knoicledge,  or  the 
means  to  be  employed ;  and  Methods,  or  the  manner  of 
imparting  knowledge  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  the  proper 
culture. 

It  will  readily  be  seen  that  the  science  of  education t, 
admits  of  study,  and  it  will  as  readily  be  admitted  that 
to  be  a  successful  teacher,  in  the  broadest  sense  of  the 
term,   one    must  understand   thoroucrhlv  the  three  cle- 
ments  which  enter  into  the  process  of  all  true  education. 

Man  consists  of  body  and  mind.  The  teacher  must 
understand  the  nature  of  both  of  these.  He  should 
liave  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  physical  system,  the 
functions  of  the  various  parts,  and  the  best  means  of 
preserving  the  bodily  health.  He  should  also  know 
definitely  the  influence  which  a  diseased  or  a  healthy 
body  exerts  on  the  condition  of  one's  mind,  and  also  the 
proper  means  by  which  to  promote  physical  health  and 
physical  training,  so  as  to  make  the  body  not  only 
healthful,  but  also  strono;  and  beautiful. 

The  teacher  must  understand  the  human  mind.  He 
must  know  the  faculties  of  which  it  consists,  the  com- 
parative order  of  development  of  those  faculties,  the 
proper  knowledge  to  be  imparted  in  order  to  secure  the 
most  profitable  mental  growth,  and  the  method  of  im- 


THE    NATURE    AND    OBJECT   OF    EDUCATION.         13 

parting  knowledge  in  such  a  manner  as  to  secure  tlie 
best  results.  It  is  no  more  necessarv  for  the  farmer  to 
understand  the  nature  of  the  soil  lie  tills,  the  manner 
of  growth  of  the  plant  he  cultivates,  and  the  laws 
which  govern  that  growth,  together  with  the  means  to 
be  applied  and  the  proper  method  of  application  in 
order  to  promote  healthy  growth,  than  it  is  for  the 
teacher  to  understand  thoroughly  the  human  mind. 

It  is  true  that  an  ignorant  farmer,  without  any  know- 
ledo;e  of  scientific  husbandrv,  mav  manao;e  to  secure  a 
crop,  and,  as  he  gains  experience,  increase  the  size  of 
the  crop.  In  a  similar  manner,  the  non-scientific  teacher 
may  find  minds  developing  under  his  training,  notwith- 
^tandino;  his  blunders  or  io;norance :  but  neither  the 
j)lant-growth  nor  the  mind-growth  is  what  it  might 
liave  been  under  the  judicious  guidance  of  one  who  un- 
derstood his  work  from  the  bejrinnintr.  Skillful  teach- 
ing,  like  skillful  husbandry,  may  be  gained  by  experi- 
ence, but  it  must  be  at  the  expense  of  the  mental  growth 
of  the  children  placed  under  the  unskilled  teacher's  care. 
The  school-room  ought  not  to  be  a  place  where  low- 
salaried  teachers  are  placed  to  gain  experience  by  con- 
tinued experiment. 

The  Object  of  Education. 

The  chief  object  of  education  is  development  in  the 
fullest  sense  of  the  term — intellectual,  moral,  and  phys- 
ical. That  man  is  best  educated  whose  whole  being, 
botly  and  mind,  is  most  symmetrically  and  harmoniously 
developed,  and  whose  powers,  both  physical  and  mental, 
have  been  strengthened  and  cultured  in  accordance  with 
the  laws  of  normal  growth. 


14  METHODS    OF   TEACniXQ. 

Education  embraces  Culture  and  Instruction.  Man  has 
certain  powers  both  of  body  and  of  mind,  each  of  which 
may  receive  systematic  training  designed  to  give  it  per- 
fect development.  These  methods  of  training,  whether 
of  the  physical  or  of  the  mental  powers,  give  rise  to 
what  are  known  as  Methods  of  Culture. 

In  the  process  of  education  knowledge  is  communi- 
cated. The  mind  craves  knowledge  as  the  physical 
system  craves  food.  The  physical  organs  digest  and 
assimilate  the  food,  and  it  is  made  to  supply  physical 
loss,  give  strength  to  the  body,  and  develop  the  physical 
system.  In  a  similar  manner,  knowledge  is  assimilated 
by  the  human  mind,  the  mental  powers  systematize  it, 
and  it  is  made  to  aid  healthy  mental  growth  and  devel- 
opment. The  methods  of  imparting  this  knowledge 
from  one  mind  to  another  give  rise  to  what  are  known 
as  Methods  of  Instruction. 

I\Iethods  of  culture  and  methods  of  instruction  are  in 
a  measure  distinct,  and  yet  each  implies  the  other.  Cul- 
ture is  gained  by  knowledge  as  physical  growth  is  gained 
by  food.  There  can  be  no  culture  without  knowledge, 
and  that  system  of  instruction  is  best  which  gives  the 
most  valuable  culture.  Instruction  aims  to  impart 
knowledge,  while  the  object  of  culture  is  to  give  growth 
and  development.  The  latter  is  an  end  to  be  attained, 
while  the  former  is  a  means  by  which  to  attain  the  de- 
sired end. 

The  art  of  school  management  has  by  many  writers 
been  considered  one  of  the  essentials  of  education.  It 
seems,  however,  rather  to  be  co-ordinate  with  methods  of 
culture  and  methods  of  instruction.  Indeed,  the  thi-ee 
are  so  intertwined  that  it  is  a  matter  of  no  little  diffi- 


THE    NATUEE    AND    OBJECT    OF    EDUCATIOX,         15 

culty  to  discuss  any  one  of  thciii  without  to  some  extent 
trenching  upon  the  others. 

The  process  of  education  may  be  subdivided,  accord- 
ing to  tlie  powers  to  be  dealt  witli,  into  Phi/sica!,  IntcU 
ledualy  and  Moral  education.  To  these  may  be  added 
jEdhet'ic  and  Religious  education. 

Physical  education  has  for  its  object  the  proper  training, 
growth,  and  development  of  the  human  body  in  such  a 
^vay  as  to  promote  strength,  health,  grace,  and  beauty. 

Intellectual  education  has  for  its  object  the  training, 
growth,  and  development  of  the  intellectual  powers  of 
man.  It  aims  to  give  strength  and  development  to 
man's  mind,  as  physical  education  does  to  his  body. 

Moral  education  has  for  its  object  the  training  and 
strengthening  of  man's  moral  nature.  It  considers  the 
relations  which  exist  between  any  individual  and  other 
human  beings.  It  aims  to  cultivate  the  conscience,  and 
subordinates  the  ^vill  to  one's  sense  of  right  and  duty. 

.ffistlietic  education  has  for  its  object  the  culture  of 
taste.  It  aims  to  train  man's  mind  not  only  to  perceive, 
but  also  to  appreciate  and  love,  the  beautiful. 

Religious  education  differs  from  moral  education  in 
this,  that  it  considers  man's  relations  to  a  Supreme  Being, 
■where  moral  education  deals  "with  man's  relations  with 
man  alone. 

Definition  of  Terms. 

A  Teacher  Is  now  understood  to  be  one  who  teaches 
Dr  educates.  A  teacher  is  no  longer  one  who  simply  in- 
structs, he  also  trains. 

An  Instructor  {in  and  struere,  to  pile  up)  is  properly 
one  who  imparts  instruction. 


16  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

An  Educator  {educare,  to  foster,  to  teaeb)  is  one  who 
is  conversant  with  education — one  Mho  j)romotes  the 
cause  of  education,  rather  than  one  who  educates. 

Pedagogy  {pais,  paldos,  a  boy,  and  agogos,  leading)  is 
used  by  many  writers  as  synonymous  with  education,  iu- 
chiding  both  the  science  and  the  art  of  teaching.  It  is  a 
favorite  term  with  German  writers,  though,  it  is  said,  tliey 
do  not  advocate  the  term  "  pedagogue." 

Didactics  [dldaskeln,  to  teach)  is  also  used  as  a  synonym 
for  the  word  "education."  In  many  normal  schools  and 
in  some  colleges  the  term  has  gained  a  foothold,  from  the 
fact  that  chairs  or  professorships  of  didactics  have  been 
established. 

It  mav  be  said  of  all  these  terms  that  none  is  more 
full  of  meaning  or  more  likely  to  be  respected  than  the 
two  words  Teacher  and  Teaching,  which  have  a  humility 
and  sterling  worth  all  their  own. 


CHAPTER    II. 
Educational  Laws. 

As  has  been  stated,  the  chief  object  of  education  is  an 
harmonious  development  of  all  man's  powers.  This  de- 
velopment is  controlled  by  laws  which  govern  the  growth 
both  of  body  and  of  mind.  In  some  respects  man  does 
not  differ  from  the  lower  animals,  or  even  from  the  vege- 
table kingdom.  Plant  life  and  growth  depend  upon  fixed 
natural  laws,  which  the  husbandman  must  understand  in 
order  to  give  the  most  profitable  culture;  and,  similar- 
ly, both  the  physical  and  the  mental  growth  of  man  are 
governed  by  laws  or  principles  which  dare  not  be  ignored 
if  Ave  hope  to  secure  the  best  development. 

All  svstems  of  education  must  be  based  on  these  nat- 
ural  laws,  and  every  one  that  enters  upon  the  work  of 
teaching  should  understand  them  as  thoroughly  as  the 
physician  is  expected  to  understand  the  anatomy  and 
physiology  of  the  human  body  or  the  laws  of  hygiene. 
An  eminent  writer  says :  ''  Nothing  is  more  absurd  than 
the  common  notion  of  instruction,  as  if  science  were  to 
Le  poured  into  the  mind  like  water  into  a  cistern  that 
passively  waits  to  receive  all  that  comes."  Sir  William 
Hamilton  says:  "A  liberal  education  is  an  education  in 
which  the  individual  is  cultivated,  not  as  an  instrument 
toward  some  ulterior  end,  but  as  an  end  unto  himself 
2  17 


18  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

alone ;  in  other  words,  an  education  in  which  his  abso- 
lute perfection  as  a  man,  and  not  merely  his  relative 
dexterity  as  a  professional  man,  is  the  scope  immedi- 
ately in  view." 

GENERAL   LAWS. 

The  following  are  among  the  most  important  of  the 
general  laws  of  education,  together  with  the  inferences: 

Law  L  The  Human  Mind  Embraces  a  Number  of  Distinct 
Faculties. 

The  3Iind  is  that  which  thinks,  feels,  and  wills.  These 
operations  indicate  three  departments  of  mind,  as  follows: 
The  thinking  or  knowing  part,  called  the  Intellect;  the 
feeling  or  emotional  part,  knov,-n  as  the  SensibUitics  ;  and 
the  part  which  puts  forth  volition,  known  as  the  Will. 

A  Mental  Faculty  is  the  mind's  power  of  doing  some- 
thing or  of  putting  foi:th  some  mental  activity.  The 
mind  has  as  many  faculties  as  there  are  distinct  forms 
of  this  mental  activity.  Metaphysicians  do  not  agree 
upon  the  exact  number  of  mental  faculties,  some  hold- 
ing that  attention  and  consciousness  are  distinct  mental 
powers,  while  others  maintain  that  these  are  only  con- 
ditions which  accompany  all  forms  of  mental  activity. 

The  Intellect  includes  a  number  of  faculties— Perccp- 
t'lon,  Memory,  Imagination,  Understanding,  and  Reason 
or  Intuition. 

The  Understanding,  which  is  known  also  as  the  elab- 
orative  power  of  the  mind  and  as  the  reasoning  powers, 
embraces  several  distinct  forms  of  mental  activity,  known 
as  Abstraction,  Classification,  Generalization,  Judgment, 
'and  Reasoning.    The  term  Conception  is  by  some  writers 


EDUCATIONAL    LAWS.  10 

substituted  for  the  terms  '•  Classification"  anJ  ^'Generali- 
zation." 

The  Sensibilities  include  the  emotions,  the  appetite?, 
and  the  desires,  which  are  also  subdivided  by  some  au- 
thors into  animal  and  rational. 

The  117/^  is  the  executive  power  of  the  mind. 

Each  of  these  mental  powers  has  its  special  work  to 
]»erform,  not  only  in  acquiring  knowledge,  but  also  in 
the  matter  of  securing  ])roper  culture  and  development. 

Inference  1.  A  proper  scheme  of  education  must  provide 
for  the  training  of  all  man's  powers. — This  is  evident 
from  the  fact  that  the  development  must  be  an  harmoni- 
ous development.  A  one-sided  education  is  necessarily 
defective.  Culture  of  intellect  alone,  without  the  cor- 
responding culture  of  the  moral  nature,  may  make  a 
man  an  intellectual  giant,  but  lacking  character  he  be- 
comes all  the  more  dangerous  because  of  his  intellectual 
strength.  The  fact,  too,  tliat  God  has  endowed  man 
with  these  various  powers,  and  that  each  has  its  special 
use  in  aiding  one  to  attain  a  symmetrical  development, 
are  strong  proofs  that  educational  plans  must  provide 
for  the  proper  training  of  all  the  various  powers. 

Inference  2.  Such  branches  of  knowledge  must  be  taught 
as  will  give  development  to  all  man's  powers. — Tlie  wise 
teacher  will  adaj)t  the  knowledge  he  attempts  to  impart 
to  the  mental  wants  of  the  child.  Studies,  a  knowledge 
of  which  may  be  gained  through  the  senses,  will  prove 
well  adapted  to  the  training  of  perception;  mathematics 
and  grammar  will  be  found  suited  to  the  culture  and  de- 
velopment of  the  understanding;  and  still  others  will  be 
found  suited  to  the  culture  of  the  memory,  the  imagina- 
tion, and  the  other  mental  faculties. 


20  METQODS    OF    TEACH  I XG. 

Inference  3.  Tlie  methods  of  instruction  must  be  such  as 
to  develop  all  the  mental  -poxcers. — ^lechauical  instruction 
or  imitative  teaching  too  often  results  in  mere  memory- 
culture.  Pupils  who  are  permitted  to  memorize  text- 
book answers  have  the  memory  trained  at  the  expense 
of  the  other  mental  powers,  and  rarely  become  success- 
ful or  profound  scholars.  Those  also  Avho  memorize 
problems  and  mathematical  solutions  and  demonstrations, 
or  who  solve  problems  Avithout  thought  and  without  ex- 
planation, violate  the  same  principle  of  mental  growth. 
Ko  two  branches  can  be  taught  in  precisely  the  same 
manner.  The  intelligent  teacher  varies  liis  metliods,  so 
as  to  develop  harmoniously  all  the  2)owers  of  the  human 
mind. 

Law  II.  The  Faculties  of  the  Mind  Develop  in  a  Fixed 
Order. 

A\'hile  it  is  true  that  all  the  mental  powers  are  more 
or  less  active  at  all  times,  it  is  erpially  true  that  at  the 
various  j)criods  of  -life  some  of  these  faculties  are  rela- 
tively stronfrer  and  more  active  than  are  the  others. 
Psychologists  agree  that  Perception  is  more  active  in 
infancy  and  early  childhood  than  are  the  other  fac- 
ulties. The  first  knowledge  that  a  child  gains  comes 
to  him  through  the  senses;  these  furnish  all  knowl- 
edge acquired  through  the  ojieratiou  of  the  observing 
powers. 

The  3Iemory,  or  that  power  by  vvhich  we  retain  and 
recall  knowledge,  is  also  developed  at  an  early  period  of 
life,  and  closely  connected  with  its  operations  are  those 
of  the  Imagination,  the  power  by  which  we  form  itleal 
creations.     The  development  of  these  two  follows  closely 


EDUCATIONAL   LAWS.  21 

on  that  of  Perception,  and  from  this  point  onward  the 
three  are  more  or  less  active  together. 

The  Understanding,  or  that  power  of  the  mind  wliich 
takes  the  materials  furnished  by  the  other  faculties  and 
derives  new  products  and  new  truths — that  power  which 
classifies,  generalizes,  judges,  and  reasons — is  probably 
the  next  in  the  order  of  development. 

Still  later  is  developed  the  Reason  or  Intuifion,  the 
power  which  gives  us  thoughts  and  ideas  not  furnished 
by  the  senses  or  reasoned  out  by  the  understanding,  such 
as  our  ideas  of  beauty,  right  and  wrong,  time,  space,  and 
cause. 

Thus  it  will  be  found  there  is  an  order  of  mental  de- 
velopment which  characterizes  every  child.  It  may  be 
more  marked  in  some  than  in  others,  and  different  minds 
niav  develop  with  greater  or  less  rapidity,  but  the  truth 
remains  that  there  is  a  relative  order  of  development  in 
the  mind ;  and  this  dare  not  be  ignored  by  the  teacher. 

Inference  1.  Studies  must  be  adapted  to  the  order  of  men- 
tal development. — It  would  be  absurd  to  require  children 
to  pursue  the  study  of  such  branches  first  as  require  an 
exercise  of  the  understanding,  since  this  is  among  the 
last  of  the  mental  faculties  to  be  developed.  Naturally, 
the  first  studies  should  be  such  as  appeal  to  the  senses. 
Followino;  these  should  be  such  studies  as  are  suited  to 
give  memory-culture,  then  such  as  will  train  the  imag- 
ination, and  so  on,  making  the  studies  correspond  to  the 
natural  order  of  mental  development. 

Inference  2.  Methods  of  instruction  must  be  adapted  to 
the  laws  of  mentcd  groicth. — The  first  instruction  must  be 
adapted  to  the  undeveloped  character  of  the  child's  mind. 
Indeed,  the  earliest  instruction  must  be  largely  informal, 


22  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

such  as  is  cliaracteiistic  of  the  Kindergarten,  where  the 
child  is  placed  amid  such  surroundings  and  under  such 
conditions  as  will  lead  him  to  develop  his  own  powers, 
the  teacher  acting  mainly  as  a  guide.  The  next  step  is 
such  methods  as  will  develop  both  memory  and  j)crcop- 
tion,  and  so  forward,  following  the  indicated  order  of 
mental  growth. 

Law  III. — Self-activity  is  a  Law  of  Mental  Growth. 

Sir  William  Hamilton  says:  "The  primary  principle 
of  education  is  the  determination  of  the  pupil  to  self-ac- 
tivity." A  plant  grows  and  develops  in  accordance  with 
an  inherent  principle  or  law.  All  that  the  husbandman 
can  do  is  to  hasten  or  retard  that  growth  by  surrounding 
the  plant  with  conditions  favorable  or  otherwise.  The 
life-principle  is  there,  and  simply  awaits  the  conditions 
which  will  prove  most  congenial  and  favorable  to  its  de- 
velopment. The  human  mind  also  develops  in  accord- 
ance with  laws  inherent  in  its  nature.  If  the  conditions 
bv  which  it  is  surrounded  be  unfavorable  to  its  growth, 
its  development  may  be  retarded;  but  if  these  condi- 
tions, on  the  other  hand,  be  favorable,  tl)e  development 
may  be  marvelous.  The  mind  of  a  child  is  not  a  mere 
passive  receiver  into  which  knowledge  may  be  poured. 
True  education  is  growth,  development.  It  is  only  by 
the  mind's  inherent  energy  that  it  becomes  strong. 

Inference  1.  Studies  must  be  sucli  as  icill  enable  the 
child  to  acquire  self-development. — Xo  child  should  bo 
required  to  pursue  the  study  of  that  which  is  beyond 
his  capacity  to  master.  Studies  must  be  ada})ted  to  the 
mental  ability  of  the  learner.  Much  of  the  dissatisfac- 
tion some  years  ago  with  results  in  the  teaching  of  such 


EDUCATIONAL   LAWS.  23 

branches  as  grammar  arose  from  tlie  fact  that  the  science 
taught  was  beyond  the  comprehension  of  the  learner. 
Children  could  not  master  the  difficulties  for  themselves, 
and  many  teachers  had  no  knowledge  of  the  subject  out- 
side of  the  individual  textbook  which  they  had  studied. 
Tlie  law  of  self-activity  had  been  violated  in  both  cases. 

Inference  2.  Methods  of  instruction  should  he  such  as 
will  train  pupils  to  self-development. — Training  to  think  is 
the  important  part  of  all  good  teaching.  It  is  Avhat  the 
child  does  for  himself  that  gives  him  culture  and 
strength.  The  wise  teacher  does  not  spend  so  much  of 
his  time  in  imparting  knowledge  as  he  does  in  guiding 
the  learner's  efforts  to  acquire  knowledge  for  himself. 
A  teacher  can  do  no  greater  harm  to  a  child  than  to 
furnish  that  child  with  answers  and  thoughts  ready 
formed.  Every  child  should  do  his  own  work,  his  own 
thinking,  if  he  hopes  to  acquire  either  knowledge  or 
mental  growth. 

It  is  only  the  unskilled  and  uneducated  teacher  that 
believes  children  are  educated  mainly  by  what  they  are 
told.  That  instruction  or  that  discipline  which  aids  the 
cliild  most  is  that  in  which  the  teacher  acts  as  a  guide 
only,  and  permits  the  child  to  think  and  do  for  himself 
under  judicious  direction.  All  teachers  should  be  alive 
to  "  the  worth lessness  of  any  process  of  elementary  edu- 
cation which  does  not  aim,  above  all  things  else,  to  train 
the  minds  of  pu})ils  to  think,  and  to  empower  them  to 
give  fluent  and  accurate  expression  to  thought  in  speech 
and  writing." 

Law  IV. — The  Mind  is  both  Acquisitive  and  Productive. 
We    receive    knowledge    largely   through   the    senses. 


24  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

Children  very  early  in  life  observe  and  gain  knowledge 
constantly  through  this  channel.  We  acquire  knowl- 
edge also  by  reading  and  by  listening  to  the  words 
of  others. 

The  mind  not  only  receives  knowledge,  it  also  creates. 
It  is  the  special  work  of  the  understanding  to  create  new 
products  and  bring  new  results  from  the  materials  already 
in  the  mind.  It  is  the  work  of  the  imagination  to  cre- 
ate ideal  ])ictures.  The  mind  is  therefore  not  only  ac- 
quisitive, but  also  creative. 

Inference  1.  Studies  must  be  of  such  a  character'  as  to 
afford  knowledge  and  furnish  material  for  thought. — It  is 
not  enough  that  we  simply  receive;  knowledge  must  be 
of  such  a  character  as  to  permit  us  to  originate  thought. 
One  is  essential  to  the  other.  Both  acquisition  and  pro- 
duction are  necessary  to  give  the  mind  proper  culture. 
The  knowledge  gained  by  the  acquisitive  powers  must 
be  such  as  will  furnish  material  for  the  productive;  thus 
both  may  become  strengthened  and  developed. 

Inference  2.  Methods  of  instruction  must  be  adapted  both 
to  furnish  knowledge  and  to  arouse  thought. — Much  of  the 
knowledge  imparted  in  the  ordinary  course  of  instruction 
is  designed  to  fjive  the  student  a  fund  of  information. 
The  method  of  imparting  this  knowledge,  however,  must 
be  such  also  as  will  create  interest,  that  it  may  be  ac- 
quired under  the  most  favorable  circumstances.  The 
method  of  imparting  knowledge  must  be  such  also  aa 
will  serve  to  arouse  thought  on  the  part  of  the  pupil. 
Where  it  is  possible,  the  pupil  should  be  encouraged 
to  originate  new  thoughts,  give  original  solutions, 
and,  in  general,  exercise  the  productive  power  of  tha 
mind. 


EDUCATIONAL   LAWS.  25 

Law  V.  Human  Beings  are  Created  with  Different  Tastea 
and  Talents. 

All  minds  have  the  same  general  powers,  bnt  these 
powers  are  not  equally  strong  or  equally  susceptible  of 
development  in  eacli  indivitlual.  Children's  tastes  differ. 
So  also  do  their  capacities  for  acquiring  certain  kinds  of 
knowledge.  One  maybe  specially  talented  in  niatliemat- 
ics,  but  deficient  in  language,  while  another's  taste  is  for 
hmguage  or  natural  science  rather  than  mathematics.  In 
either  case  the  pui)il  will  acquire  much  the  more  readily 
that  knowledge  mIhcIi  is  in  accordance  with  his  natural 
taste. 

Inference  1.  Knowledge  must  be  adapted  to  the  individual 
taste. — A\'hile  it  is  wise  in  elementary  schools  to  give  gen- 
eral instruction  at  first,  it  is  also  wise,  where  possible,  to 
ada])t  the  branches  taught  to  the  individual  capacity  of 
the  pupils.  If  one  is  specially  fitted  to  become  a  painter 
or  an  artist,  every  op])ortunity  should  be  afforded  not 
only  to  gratify  the  special  taste,  but  also  to  give  culture 
to  the  natural  talent.  Technical  schools  must  of  course 
do  much  of  this  work — polytechnic  schools  for  engineers, 
medical  colleges  for  physicians,  theological  schools  for 
clergymen,  and  so  on.  In  these  the  special  knowledge 
can  be  adapted  to  the  individual  preferences. 

Inference  2.  Mdliods  of  teaching  should  vary  according 
to  the  individual  capacifi/  of  pupils. — This  is  true  not  only 
as  concerns  the  individual  taste  of  pujuls,  but  also  as  con- 
cerns their  individual  talent.  The  bright  pupil  needs  but 
little  assistance,  while  his  neighbor,  who  thinks  more 
slowly,  may  need  considerable  encouragement,  ami  occa- 
sionally actual  assistance,  to  enable  him  to  understand 
and  comprehend.      The  difference  of    individual  talent 


26  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

to  some  extent  characterizes  also  the  two  sexes,  and  the 
methods  of  instruction,  even  in  the  same  class,  ought  to 
vary  on  this  account. 

Law  VI.  The  Human  Mind  Is  Finite. 

The  powers  of  mind  are  limited.  We  can  reason  to  a 
certain  extent,  but  there  our  power  ends.  Every  faculty 
of  man,  like  every  one  of  his  physical  powers,  has  limits 
beyond  which  it  is  impossible  to  operate.  "We  cannot 
com])rehend  the  Infmite. 

Inference.  All  methods  of  teaching  must  end  hi  that  which 
is  finite. — It  is  folly  to  attempt  to  reach  the  infinite.  We 
may  go  beyond  the  finite,  reaching  forth  everywhere  be- 
yond the  unknown,  but  many  of  our  conclusions  will 
prove  our  work  to  be  mere  speculation. 


CPTAPTER   lix. 

Forms  of  Ixstruction. 

INSTRUCTION  cousists  in  imparting  knowledge  lo  an- 
otlier.  Knowledge  maybe  conveyed  in  different  ways, 
and  these  give  rise  to  different  forms  of  instruction.  The 
most  important  forms  of  instruction  are  the  following : 

1,  Oral  Instruction, — This  consists  in  the  teacher's  talk- 
ing with  his  pupils  and  conveying  orally  most  or  all  of 
the  knowledge  he  imparts.  It  does  away  with  the  use  of 
the  textbook.  The  teacher  takes  the  place  of  the  text- 
book, and  furnishes  all  the  facts  and  principles  that  the 
textbook  is  suppojsed  to  give.  The  chief  value  of  this 
method  of  instruction  is  found  in  its  application  to  pri- 
mary schools,  where  object-lessons  form  the  basis  of  in- 
struction. Even  here,  however,  it  is  liable  to  be  abused 
and  to  lead  pupils  into  careless  and  idle  habits. 

2.  Concrete  and  Abstract  Instruction. —  Concrete  Instruc- 
tion is  that  which  makes  use  of  objects  and  illustrations 
for  the  purpose  of  imparting  knowledge.  All  work  in 
the  nature  of  object-lessons  may  be  regarded  as  concrete, 
also  such  methods  as  employ  diagrams,  pictures,  apparatus, 
or  illustrations  of  any  kind. 

Concrete  instruction  is  valuable  in  all  primary  teaching 

27 


28  METHODS   OF   TEACniNG. 

of  anv  branch.  Indeed,  all  primary  teaching  is  best  ac- 
complished bv  the  concrete  method,  where  every  child  can 
be  made  to  understand  by  the  use  of  such  illustrations  or 
apparatus  as  he  is  fully  able  to  comprehend. 

Abstract  Instruction  does  away  with  all  illustration. 
The  mere  repetition  of  rules  in  grammar,  the  reciting 
of  tables  in  arithmetic,  counting  and  performing  otiier 
arithmetical  work  by  rote,  and  witliout  the  use  of  prac- 
tical illustration  or  business  application,  are  examples  of 
abstract  teach ing. 

3.  Syutlietlc  and  Analytic  Instruction.— ^'^ni'/irf/c  />i- 
struction  is  that  which  begins  with  parts  and  proceeds 
to  wholes.  In  geography  it  begins  with  the  home  or  the 
school-grounds,  and  proceeds  from  that  to  the  township, 
county.  State,  etc.  In  grammar,  synthetic  instruction 
begins  with  Avords  and  forms  sentences,  and  from  these 
discourse. 

Anulijtic  Instruction  is  the  opposite  of  synthetic. 
Analytic  instruction  ])roceeds  from  the  general  to  the 
particular,  from  wholes  to  parts.  In  geograjihy,  ana- 
lytic instruction  teaches  the  globe  first  as  a  whole,  then 
the  divisions,  then  the  subdivisions,  etc.  In  grammar, 
analytic  instruction  begins  with  the  sentence  and  pro- 
ceeds to  the  divisions  and  their  modifiers,  showing  the 
uses  of  the  respective  parts. 

4.  Inductive  and  Deductive  Teaching. — Inductive  Teach- 
ing is  somewhat  of  the  nature  of  synthetic  teai.'hing.  It 
proceeds  from  the  particulars  to  the  general.  It  begins 
with  examples  and  processes,  and  ends  in  principles  and 
rules.    In  aiiihmetic,  by  inductive  teaching,  the  pupil  is 


FORMS   OF   INSTRUCTION.  2D 

jed  to  form  Lis  own  rules  from  a  clear  unJerstanding  of 
the  various  processes.  The  same  is  true  in  other  brandies : 
the  examples  and  processes  come  first,  and  the  rule  or 
princii)le  last.  By  the  inductive  process  the  order  is, 
fii-st  the  idea,  then  the  name,  and  lastly  the  definition. 
Bedudive  Teaching  begins  with  principles  or  rules, 
and  passes  to  the  demonstration  and  application  of  them. 
It  proceeds  from  the  general  to  the  particulars.  Its  or- 
der is  the  reverse  of  the  inductive  method.  In  geometry, 
it  begins  with  the  proposition  and  proceeds  to  the  demon- 
strutiop.  In  })hilosophy,  it  states  the  general  law,  and 
then  proves  it  by  experiment  and  illustration.  In 
arithmetic,  it  lays  down  the  rule,"  and  then  shows  the 
practical  application. 


CHAPTER    IV. 

Important  Educational  Principles. 

The  following  iQijiortant  principles  should  be  kept  in 
miud  by  the  teacher  : 

1.  Instruction  and  Culture  are  Mutually  Dependent. — 
Any  attempts  at  educating  in  which  instruction  is  im- 
parted without  giving  culture  are  worse  than  useless. 
Culture  is,  indeed,  the  chief  object  of  education,  and 
therefore  instruction  should  aim  not  simply  nor  chiefly 
at  imparting  knowledge,  but  rather  at  so  cultivating  the 
mind  as  to  give  it  a  healthful,  symmetrical  development. 
Any  attempts  at  culture  must  result  also  in  imparting  to 
the  mind  of  the  learner  a  vast  quantity  of  useful  knowl- 
edge.    The  two,  therefore,  are  mutually  dependent. 

2.  Culture  is  more  Valuable  than  Knowledge. — The  un- 
disciplined or  uncultured  mind,  however  valuable  the 
facts  and  knowledge  it  may  have  stored,  has  but  little 
power  unless  that  knowledge  be  at  command.  Bacon 
says :  "  Knowledge  is  power ;"  it  were  better  had  he 
said,  Culture  is  power.  Culture  even  gives  one  the 
power  to  acquire  knowledge.  It  enables  one  to  origi- 
nate; it  gives  one  new  ideas.  Culture  prepares  us  to 
win  the  battles  of  life.     Knowledge  gives  us  the  giant's 

30 


IMPORTANT    EDUCATIONAL    PRINCIPLES.  31 

streugth,  but  culture  gives  us  the  power  aud  the  skill  to 
use  that  strength  effectively. 

The  teacher,  -while  imparting  knowledge,  should  al- 
M-ays  keep  in  view  the  culture  of  the  child's  various 
faculties,  and  under  no  circumstances  should  he  permit 
liis  liking  for  any  department  of  knowledge  to  lead  him 
to  forget  that  it  is  his  mission  to  develop  the  child- mind, 
rather  than  pour  into  it  a  mass  of  disintegrated  and  dis- 
connected facts  called  knowledo;e.  The  teacher  should 
know  the  value  of  each  study,  its  relation  to  the  mentaF 
faculties,  and  how  best  to  teach  it  so  as  to  give  each  of 
these  faculties  its  due  share  of  culture. 

3.  Exercise  is  Necessary  to  Culture. — Strength  of  both 
body  and  mind  comes  from  exercise.  The  muscles  un- 
used become  weak  and  flabby ;  the  senses  unused  become 
obtuse  ;  the  memory  without  exercise  becomes  unreliable  ; 
and  thus  with  the  other  mental  powers,  each  grows 
■weaker  the  less  the  exercise  to  Avliich  it  is  subjected. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  more  one's  mental  and  physical 
powers  are  exercised  judiciously,  the  stronger  and  the 
more  reliable  they  become. 

Studies  must  not,  however,  be  of  such  a  nature  as  to 
stimulate  too  greatly,  otherwise  some  of  the  mental 
powers  may  be  abnormally  developed,  or  be  developed 
at  the  expense  of  others  quite  as  important.  The  vari- 
ous branches  of  knowledge  are  well  fitted  to  give  cul- 
ture to  all  the  mental  powers,  and  it  is  the  work  of  the 
judicious  teacher  to  provide  for  the  symmetrical  culture 
of  these  powers. 

4.  The  Order  of  Instruction  must  Correspond  to  tlie  Or- 


32  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

der  of  Growth. — By  some  writers  the  school-time  of  life 
has  been  divided  into  four  periods,  as  follows : 

1.  Infancy,  or  the  time  from  birth  to  the  age  o^  fve. 

2.  Childhood,  or  the  time  from  the  age  of  Jive  to  the 
age  of  ten; 

3.  Youth,  or  the  time  from  the  age  of  ten  to  the  age 
of  sixteen; 

4.  Manhood,  or  the  time  from  the  age  of  sixteen  to  the 
age  of  twenty-one. 

Dr.  Hill  divides  this  time  into  five  periods,  as 
follows  : 

1.  The  first,  or  sub-primary  school,  from  the  age  of 
five  to  the  age  of  eight; 

2.  The  second,  or  jjrimary  school,  from  the  age  of  eigM 
to  the  age  of  eleven  ; 

3.  The  Hard,  or  grammar  school,  from  the  age  of 
eleven  to  the  age  of  fourteen  ; 

4.  The  fourth,  or  high  school,  from  the  age  of  fourteen 
to  the  age  of  seventeen  ; 

5.  The  fifth,  or  college  pei'iod,  from  the  age  of  seventeen 
to  the  age  of  twenty-one. 

The  foregoing  division  is  not  only  practical,  but  also 
logical  where  the  child  is  placed  under  svstematic  in- 
struction  the  greater  part  of  the  year.  As  the  length 
of  the  school-term  varies,  however,  the  author  prefers 
the  following  division  into  three  periods  : 

First  Period. — This  includes  the  fir-^t  ten  years  of  the 
cliild's  life.  During  a  great  part  of  this  period  the  child 
depends,  to  a  great  extent,  on  its  senses  in  acquiring 
knowledge.  The  perceptive  powers  develop  rapidly, 
the  attention  of  the  child  is  engaged  with  surrounding 
objects  constantly,  and  the  elements  of  knowledge  are 


IMIORTAXT    EDUCATIONAL    PRINCIPLES.  33 

gathered  from  the  surrounding  world.  It  is  daring 
this  period  that  the  child  learns  to  walk,  run,  and  per- 
form other  physical  feats.  During  this  period  also  it 
learns  language  rapidly,  but  almost  wholly  by  imitation. 
Habits  of  speech  formed  at  this  time  will  in  most  cases 
be  habits  for  life;  it  is  therefore  all-important  that  the 
language  which  it  acquires  and  incorporates  as  a  part  of 
its  own  vocabulary  be  both  correct  and  elegant. 

The  child  during  this  first  period  of  life  is  constantly 
gathering  facts  from  the  surrounding  world.  It  investi- 
gates things,  their  properties  and  uses,  and  seeks  to  know 
their  names.  It  is  all  this  while  laying  the  foundation 
for  future  knowledge  of  a  more  scientific  character,  and 
the  efforts  of  those  who  have  the  guidance  of  the  child 
should  aim  to  aid  Nature,  for  she  is  the  chief  teacher. 
She  supplies  the  materials  and  furnishes  the  occasion 
for  the  mental  exercise,  and  the  child  learns  by  its  own 
efforts. 

The  teacher's  methods  must  be  such  as  harmonize  with 
Xature.  She  lays  down  for  the  learner  no  rules,  no  gen- 
eral principles,  no  laws.  She  simply  places  the  objects 
before  the  child  and  stimulates  him  to  inquiry,  and  he 
learns  for  himself.  She  spurs  the  child  to  action,  and 
even  pernjits  him  to  find  out  his  own  blunders.  Does 
the  child  want  to  know  whether  an  object  is  hard  or 
soft,  hot  or  cold,  heavy  or  light,  sweet  or  sour,  she  does 
not  explain,  but  lets  him  make  the  test  and  gain  the 
knowledge  for  himself.  She  tells  the  child  little,  but 
allows  him  to  do  his  own  work,  and  gives  him  no  help 
where  it  is  possible  for  him  to  find  out  for  himself.  Let 
the  wise  teacher  take  the  hint  which  Xature  gives  in  this 
quiet  teaching. 


34  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

In  Mathematics  let  the  AVdi-k  be  in  connection  witli 
objects.  The  teaching  here  should  be  concrete.  Begin- 
ning with  the  counting  of  objects,  the  child  may  be  made 
to  understand  the  processes- embraced  in  the  fundamental 
rules,  Fractions  both  common  and  decimal,  and  gain  some 
knowledge  of  Denominate  Numbers,  ])articularly  if  the 
tables  be  illustrated  bv  means  of  actual  weiirhts  and 
measures.  The  child  during  this  period  may  also  be 
made  to  distinguish  the  chief  geometrical  forms  and 
name  the  different  elements  of  form. 

lu  Language  the  child  should  first  be  taught  to  talk, 
and  care  should  be  taken  that  the  forms  of  speech  which 
it  uses  are  correct,  that  the  use  of  good  language  may  be- 
come a  habit  of  its  life.  Beginning  with  the  as^e  of  six 
or  seven,  a  systematic  course  of  instruction  in  language- 
lessons  may  be  given  to  the  child,  including  the  compo- 
sition of  sentences,  the  copying  of  reading-lessons,  the  use 
of  capital  letters,  the  nse  of  the  chief  punctuation- marks, 
the  changino:  of  sentences  from  one  form  to  another,  the 
i-eproduction  of  stories,  descriptions,  etc.  The  child  may 
also  learn  during  this  jjeriod  much  of  the  spelling  and 
pronunciation  of  its  mother-tongue. 

In  the  department  o'f  Physical  Science  the  child's  know- 
ledge consists  largelv  of  an  accumulation  of  facts  which  are 
the  results  of  its  own  observation.  JMany  of  the  questions 
which  he  will  ask  would  puzzle  a  philosopher  to  answer. 
[t  is  the  work  of  the  teacher  to  direct  the  child's  efforts 
in  such  a  way  as  to  make  his  knowledge  useful.  The 
child  may  be  taught  much  with  reference  to  leaves,  flow- 
ers, and  trees;  also  about  wild  and  domestic  animals, and 
their  habits;  also  the  different  kinds  of  minerals,  together 
n-ith  their  uses  and  comparative  value,     lie  may  also  be 


IMPORTANT    EDUCATIONAL    rRINCIPLES.  35 

tauglit  some  of  tlie  more  simple  facts  of  natural  phil- 
osophy, together  with  the  causes  of  the  most  familiar 
phenomena. 

In  Geography  he  may  be'  taught  to  distinguish  tlie 
different  divisions  of  land  and  water,  the  locations  of 
the  most  important  countries  on  the  map,  the  directions 
of  the  compass,  the  direction  of  the  different  localities 
from  his  own  home  or  from  the  school-house. 

In  History  the  knowledge  he  gains  must  be  largely 
of  a  biograi)hical  nature.  It  ought  to  consist  mainly 
of  stories  read  or  related  by  the  teaclier. 

In  the  Arts  the  child  may  be  taught  to  sing  at  a  very 
early  age.  But  little  of  the  science  of  music,  however, 
should  be  attempted.  Some  attention  may  be  given 
during  this  period  also  to  writing  and  drawing. 

Second  Period. — This  period  extends  from  the  age  of 
ten  to  about  the  age  of  fifteen.  During  this  period  Per- 
ception is  still  active,  but  Memory  is  now  also  rapidly 
developed.  The  child  now  not  only  observes  more 
closely,  but,  as  his  memory  gro^vs  stronger,  he  is  better 
able  to  glean  knowledge  from  the  })rinted  page,  and  re- 
tain it.  The  accumulation  of  facts  should  continue  to 
be  an  imjiortant  part  of  the  learner's  work,  but  his 
mind  should  be  trained  also  to  habits  of  accurate  recol- 
lection. It  is  not  enough  that  the  mind  be  able  to  re- 
tain the  knowledge  gained ;  it  must  also  be  able  to 
reproduce  that  knowledge  accurately.  The  reasoning 
powers  also  begin  to  develop  rapidly  during  this  period, 
and  the  course  of  study,  as  well  as  the  methods  of  train- 
ing and  iiistruction,  must  be  made  to  conform  to  the  nat- 
ural development  of  the  mind. 

In  Mathematics  the  child  during  this  period  should 


36  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

have  a  (hoi'Dugh  drill  in  both  oral  and  written  raethods 
of  arithmetic.  He  ought  also  to  complete  the  study  of 
algebra  and  the  elements  of  geometry. 

In  Language  he  should  give  much  attention  to  read- 
ing, spelling,  and  composition.  During  this  period  he 
should  begin  the  study  of  practical  grammar,  and  be 
trained  to  make  the  correct  application  of  its  principles 
in  his  own  speech  and  writing.  He  should  also  be 
taught  the  use  of  the  dictionary,  the  origin  and  deriva- 
tion of  words,  and  the  use  of  synonyms.  His  taste  for 
literature  may  be  cultivated  to  some  extent  by  commit- 
ting to  memory  declamations  and  choice  extracts  of  both 
prose  and  poetry.  He  should  also  be  trained  to  habits 
of  reading,  and,  if  it  is  desirable  to  acquaint  him  with 
other  languages  than  his  own,  this  is  the  period  of  life 
in  which  the  work  should  be  begun. 

In  the  Physical  Sciences  he  should  be  made  acquainted 
with  the  elementary  truths  and  principles  of  physical 
geograj)hy,  physiology,  botany,  natural  philosophy,  and, 
to  some  extent,  chemistry  and  geology,  though  these  lat- 
ter should  not  yet  be  pursued  as  formal  studies.  In  all 
these  the  teacher  should  illustrate  largely,  permitting  the 
pupils  also  to  make  experiments  for  themselves,  and  thus 
make  the  knowledge  gained  all  the  more  impressive. 

In  Geography  the  pupil  should  during  this  period 
complete  the  ordinary  textbook  and  have  a  fair  know- 
ledge of  political,  descriptive,  and  mathematical  geog- 
raphy. 

In  History  he  ought  to  complete  the  elementary  his- 
tory of  his  own  country,  and  read  considerably  on  gen- 
eral biography,  travels,  and  explorations.  He  ought  to 
gain  some   knowledge  of  the  .prominent  events  of  the 


IMrOllTAXT    EDUCATIONAL    PRINCIPI  ES.  37 

world's  liistory,  as  well  as  a  knowledge  of  the  world's 
most  noted  characters,  such  as  Caesar,  Cromwell,  Demos- 
thenes, Shakespeare,  Frederick  the  Great,  Washington, 
and  Columbus. 

In  the  Arts  he  should  during  this  period  learn  to  sing 
bv  note,  o-aiu  a  knowledt^e  of  the  science  of  music,  be 
able  to  write  Icfriblv,  aud  draw  with  correctnec-  and 
ease.  He  may  also  gain  some  skill  in  performing  jd 
one  or  more  musical  instruments. 

Tll3  Tliird  Period. — This  period  extends  from  the  age 
of  fifteen  to  the  age  of  manhood,  twenty-one.  All  the 
powers  of  the  mind  are  now  active,  and  the  learner  is 
prepared  to  take  up  in  their  regular  order  the  usual 
studies  of  the  technical  school  course. 

Li  Mathematics  the  course  may  embrace  the  higher 
mathematics,  both  \n\VQ  and  applied. 

In  Language  the  course  should  embrace  higher  gram- 
mar, rhetoric,  the  critical  study  of  classics,  general  liter- 
ature, philology,  etc.  Tlie  student  should  also  be  directed 
in  a  course  of  general  reading,  such  as  will  give  hiui 
broad  culture  and  a  thorough  knowledge  of  tlie  style 
and  modes  of  thought  of  the  classical  writers  of  both 
prose  and  poetry.  He  should  also  have  much  practice 
in  composition  and  speaking. 

In  the  Physical  Sciences  he  should  pursue  a  full 
course,  including  mechanics,  optics,  acoustics,  electricity, 
astronomy,  chemistry,  anatomy,  physiology,  zoology, 
geology,  and  mineralogy. 

In  History  the  course  should  embitice  not  only  a  his- 
tory of  one's  own  country,  but  a  complete  history  of  the 
■world  in  general,  and  a  detailed  history  of  the  most  im- 
portant countries — England,  Ireland,  France,  Germany, 


38  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

Spain,  Greece,  Rome,  and  otliers;  to  which  may  be  add- 
ed a  course  in  the  philosophy  of  history. 

The  course  in  the  Arts  may  be  continued,  and  be 
made  to  embrace  the  higher  departments  of  music, 
painting,  and  drawing,  inckiding  arcliitecture  and  land- 
scape-gardening. 

To  these  courses  may  be  added  a  course  in  mental  and 
moral  philosophy,  logic,  political  economy,  aesthetics,  in- 
ternational law,  the  evidences  of  natural  and  revealed 
religion,  and  rational  psychology. 

5.  The  Order  of  Instruction  must  be  from  the  Concrete 
to  the  Abstract. — The  child  first  learns  to  recognize  ob- 
jects, and  afterward  their  qualities,  and,  by  comparison, 
their  relations.  It  begins  with  the  concrete.  The  ideas 
of  qualities  are  associated  with  the  objects  in  which  it 
first  perceives  the  quality,  but  subsequently  it  learns  to 
distinguish  the  quality  independent  of  the  object  with 
which  it  is  associated,  and  thus  gains  a  notion  of  abstract 
quality.  Thus,  at  first  it  simply  associates  the  idea  of 
liardness  with  marble  or  stone  or  iron,  but  after  a  time 
it  has  a-  conception  of  the  quality  hardness  independent 
of  any  particular  object,  and  thus  reaches  an  abstract 
notion  or  idea. 

This  natural  method  of  thought  indicates  that  the 
teacher  should  make  his  methods  conform  to  the  natural 
mode  of  mental  operation.  His  fir^t  teaching  should 
therefore  be  in  connection  with  objects  or  concrete  ex- 
amples, and  the  teacher  should  be  very  cautious  not  to 
pass  too  rapidly  from  the  concrete  to  the  abstract.  The 
character  of  the  individual  minds  and  their  comparative 
order  of  development  must  also  be  closely  watched   in 


rMPORTANT    EDUCATIONAL    rRIXCirLES-  39 

this  respect,  for  some  grasp  an  abstract  notion  at  a  much 
earlier  time  of  life  than  do  many  others. 

G.  All  Primary  Instruction  must  Proceed  from  tlie  Known 
to  the  Unknown. — Thino-s  \Yhich  are  unlvnown  can  l)e  il- 
lustrated  and  explained  only  by  that  whicli  is  Avell 
known.  The  teacher,  therefore,  should  begin  to  teach 
just  where  the  learner's  knowledge  ends,  or  rather  start 
from  that  whicli  the  learner  understands  well,  and  pro- 
ceed to  the  kindred  fact  to  be  learned.  A  child  should 
be  tauo-ht  the  relation  of  the  new  fiict  or  truth  to  be 
learned  to  that  which  he  already  knows.  "What  the 
child  already  knows  should  be  the  foundation  on  whicii 
to  place  the  next  truth  or  fact  as  an  addition  to  the 
structure  to  be  erected. 

This  proposition  by  no  means  argues  that  a  child 
should  never  learn  a  truth  without  first  understanding 
it.  There  are  statements  which  he  must  take  on  faith, 
and  await  the  future  explanation.  It  is  sometimes  ne- 
cessary to  teach  a  principle  whose  relations  and  Avhose 
explanation  the  child  is  ■  not  yet  prepared  to  under- 
stand. 

7.  Instruction  should  First  be  Inductive,  then  Deductive. 
— The  child's  knowledge  begins  with  its  observation  of 
individuals  and  of  individual  facts.  From  individuals 
it  passes  by  the  inductive  process  to  groups,  then  to  qual- 
ities, and  finally  to  general  laws  and  jirinciples.  This  is 
the  natural  order,  and  it  indicates  to  the  teacher  the 
order  to  be  pursued  in  the  method  of  instruction.  In 
arithmetic  the  meclianical  process  of  solution  must  pro- 
cede  the  rule.     In  (reo2;rai)hv  the  individual  facts  must 


40  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

be  tauglit  before  the  laws  and  causes.  In  grammar  tlio 
forms  of  speech  should  be  tauglit  before  the  rules  which 
govern  these  forms ;  and  thus  throughout,  in  primary 
instruction,  the  particular  should  precede  the  general. 
Facts  should  precede  principles. 

As  the  mind  develops,  the  two  processes  of  instruction 
may  bo  combined  to  some  extent,  until  finally  we  reach  a 
point  where  it  is  proper  to  pursue  the  deductive  method 
almost  wholly,  as  in  the  higher  departments  of  grammar, 
where  the  rule  or  principle  is  stated  and  the  application 
made  to  current  forms  of  speech.  The  deductive  meth- 
od is  appropriate  also  to  the  teaching  of  natural  philos- 
ophy, higher  mathematics,  and  in  general  to  all  advanced 
instruction. 

8.  Ideas  should  be  Taught  before  Words.— This  is  the 
natural  order  in  the  acquisition  of  knowledge.  The 
child,  in  examining  an  object,  first  observes,  and  then 
inquires.  What  is  it?  A  knowledge  of  objects  should 
precede  a  knowledge  of  names,  just  as  our  thoughts  pre- 
cede the  sentences  by  which  we  express  them.  Ideas 
and  thoughts  differ.  An  idea  is  properly  a  notion  of 
any  thing,  quality,  action,  etc.,  and  is  usually  represented 
by  a  single  word,  as  boy,  tall,  sinfjfs.  A  thought  is  a  com- 
bination of  ideas.  It  is  usually  expressed  by  a  sentence, 
as  "The  tall  bov  sings,"  " Chalk  is  brittle."  The  na- 
tural  order  is,  first  the  idea,  then  the  name — first  the 
thought,  then  the  sentence  or  definition.  This  order  rf 
mental  acquisition  must  be  observed  in  all  our  teaching, 
particularly  in  all  primary  teaching. 

9.  Observation  is  the  Source  of  All  Knowledge. — All 


IMPORTANT    EDUCATIONAL    PrwINCIPLES.  41 

knowledge  of  the  outward  world  is  conveyed  to  us 
throuo-li  the  senses,  and  this  forms  the  basis  of  all  our 
knowledge.  It  is  specially  iinportant,  tliercfore,  that 
the  senses  receive  careful  training.  This  result  may  be 
secured  by  giving  a  systematic  course  of  object-teaching. 
It  is  particularly  important  that  sight  and  hearing  re- 
ceive systematic  culture,  as  these  two  senses  enter  most 
largely  into  the  intellectual  processes.  Intelligence  and 
acuteness  of  these  senses  are  important  elements  in  the 
work  of  education. 

10.  The  Age  and  Capacity  of  the  Pupil  should  Modify 
the  Methods  of  Teaching. — Such  methods  should  be  pur- 
sued in  early  life  as  will  tend  to  give  culture,  particularly 
to  the  perceptive  power  and  the  memory,  while  methods 
requiring  an  exercise  of  the  understanding  or  the  reason 
should  be  reserved  for  advanced  instruction  at  a  later 
period  of  life.  Many  errors  might  be  indicated  in  this 
respect  in  the  various  schools  of  the  land. 

Not  only  age,  but  also  the  capacity  of  the  pupil, 
should  modify  both  studies  and  methods.  The  teacher 
should  so  present  subjects  to  be  taught  that  the  parts 
most  readily  understood  may  first  be  grasped  by  the 
child,  and  those  more  difficult  be  reserved  for  subsequent 
presentation.  It  is  the  work  of  the  teacher  to  show  ])u- 
pils  how  to  study,  and  indicate  the  order  in  which  knowl- 
edcre  is  most  readily  and  most  profitably  acquired. 
« 


PAET  II. 

METHODS   OF   INSTRUCTION. 


OBJECT-LESSONS. 

I.  The  Nature  and  Design  of  Object- Lessons. 

Object-Lessons  are  lessons  given  on  objects  witli  the 
purpose  of  developing  the  mental  faculties  of  children 
and  cultivating  habits  of  ready  and  accurate  observation. 
They  are  also  designed  to  impart  elementary  instruction 
in  the  facts  and  principles  of  the  different  sciences. 

Lessons  on  objects  given  by  the  teacher  for  the  mere 
purjwse  of  conveying  instruction  or  valuable  information 
to  the  minds  of  the  children,  but  without  being  adapted 
to  the  order  of  mental  development,  and  without  any 
systematic  arrangement,  are  not  object-lessons  in  tlie 
true  sense,  however  valuable  the  knowledge  presented 
by  them. 

A  system  of  object-lessons  should  be  graded  and  adapt- 
ed to  the  natural  development  of  the  child-mind.  It  also 
should  begin  with  the  simpler  facts  and  proceed  gradually 
to  the  more  abstruse  and  complex.  The  capacity  of  chil- 
dren at  the  various  stages  of  mind-growth  must  be  a  gov- 
erning prirciple  here  as  in  all  other  instruction. 


OBJECT-LESSONS.  43 

The  excellent  susrscstions  Q-iven  below  ai-e  made  1)V 
Superintendent  N.  A.  Calkins  of  New  York  City  in 
his  admirable  work  on  Primary  Object- Lessons^  where 
he  divides  the  stages  of  object-teaching  as  follows: 

"First  Stage.  During  this  ]>eriod  the  pupil  may  be 
required  to  distinguish  objects  by  their  names,  to  observe 
and  name  the  principal  j^arts,  to  describe  their  form,  color, 
and  uses. 

"  Second  Stage.  During  this  period,  which  may  com- 
mence in  the  second  year  of  school-life,  the  lessons  should 
embrace  the  form,  color,  size,  mata'ial,  qualities,  and  uses 
of  objects,  and  answers  to  the  simple  inquiry,  Where  ob- 
tained f  or,  By  whom  madef 

"  TMrd  Stage.  During  this  period,  which  should  com- 
mence in  tlie  tliird  year  of  school-life,  the  lessons  may 
include  a  more  complete  analysis  of  the  several  proper- 
ties of  objects,  and  attention  to  the  adaptation  of  their 
prominent  qualities  to  the  purposes  for  which  these 
objects  are  commonly  used." 

2.  The  History  of  Object-Teaching. 

Object-teaching  is  one  of  the  chief  principles  on  which 
Pestalozzi's  system  is  based.  Indeed,  it  is  usually  regarded 
as  the  chief  and  most  distinctive  principle  of  that  cele- 
brated teacher's  code.  He  held  that  the  observing  powers 
ehould  be  trained  to  perceive  by  examining  real  objects, 
and  that  it  is  the  office  of  books  to  supplement  the  knowl- 
edj'-R  gained  bv  personal  experience.  To  him  is  usually 
given  tlu  credit  of  having  originated  this  system  of  in- 
struction, but  improperly  so.  It  is  true  that  Pestalozzi 
made  it  a  fundamental  principle  of  all  his  teaching,  and 
employed  it  at  the  schools  of  Burgdorf  and  Yverdon. 


44  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

but  Locke,  Commeuius,  and  others  advocated  the  same 
system  of  instruction  in  advance  of  Pestalozzi.  The 
system  has  been  followed  by  the  best  teachers  ever  since 
teaching  began,  for  all  illustrations  by  objects  is  in  a  sense 
object-teaching,  and  all  good  teachers  have  resorted  to  this 
sort  of  illustration,  though  not  all  have  done  so  in  a  sys- 
tematic wav. 

3.  The  Advantages  of  Object-Lessons. 

Object-lessons,  conducted  systematically,  are  of  great 
value,  both  in  conveying  elementary  instruction  and  in 
giving  proper  mental  development.  Their  chief  advan- 
tages are  the  folio  wing  : 

1.  Object-Lessons  cultivate  Attention. — Knowledge  pre- 
sented by  means  of  objects  is  put  before  the  pupils  in  the 
most  interesting  manner.  The  illustration  being  such  as 
they  can  comprehend,  their  thoughts  are  centred  on  the 
object,  and  the  mind,  instead  of  wandering  from  one  point 
to  another,  is  attentive  to  the  lesson  taught  at  the  time. 
The  earnest  teacher  who  presents  interesting  facts  rela- 
tive to  the  object  which  forms  the  basis  of  the  lesson  can- 
not fail  to  give  the  attention  of  his  pupils  most  valuable 
culture. 

2.  Object-Lessons  give  Culture  to  the  Power  of  Perception, 
— This  will  be  plain  from  the  very  nature  of  object-lessons. 
The  child  observes  in  order  that  he  may  distinguish,  de- 
scribe, and  gain  information.  His  mind  is  attentively 
directed  to  similarities  and  differences  in  the  qualities 
of  the  objects  which  he  examines.  He  becomes  more 
and  more  interested  as  he  gains  more  and  moi'e  infor- 
mation, but  all  this  time  his  power  of  Perception  is 
receiving  culture  and   becoming  more  fully  developed. 


OBJECT-LESSONS.  45 

His  obsem'ation  leads  him  to  disfiiignish  points  of  re- 
semblance or  difference  which  pass  unnoticed  by  those 
who  do  not  Iiave  the  advantage  of  a  systematic  course 
of  tliis  kind  of  culture, 

3.  Object- Lessons  give  Culture  to  the  Memory — Every 
faculty  of  mind  is  cultured  by  exercise ;  the  knowledge, 
therefore,  communicated  in  a  series  of  lessons  on  objects, 
in  order  to  be  recalled  and  be  of  use  in  the  future,  must 
be  received  by  the  memory,  and  be  retained  there  until  the 
occasion  arises  which  demands  its  use,  when  it  is  recollect- 
ed or  recalled.  This  effort  at  retaining  the  knowledge 
imparted  is  of  course  a  valuable  aid  in  memory-culture. 

4.  Object- Lessons  give  Culture  to  the  Imagination. — The 
pictures  of  objects  retained  in  the  mind  are  recalled  by  the 
memory.  These  may  in  turn  be  remodeled  and  be  pre- 
sented to  the  mind  in  ideal  forms,  and  thus  give  culture 
to  the  Imagination.  The  child  whose  perception  has 
given  him  the  idea  of  a  house  proceeds  at  once  to  con- 
struct one  of  sticks,  paper,  or  other  convenient  material. 
He  is  not  satisfied  to  retain  the  knowledge  as  it  comes  to 
him,  but  forms  ideal  pictures,  and  attempts  to  illustrate 
them  with  such   material  as  he  may  have  at  hand, 

5.  Object- Lessons  give  Culture  to  the  Judgment. — By  a 
true  system  of  object-lessons  the  child  uses  all  his  senses; 
he  not  only  looks  at  an  object,  but  he  also  puts  his  hand 
on  it  arid  judges  its  temperature,  he  lifts  it  and  determines 
its  weight,  he  carries  it  to  his  nose  and  ascertains  its  odor, 
he  presses  it  and  learns  its  density,  he  applies  his  tongue 
to  find  whether  or  not  it  has  any  taste,  he  raps  on  it  with 
his  knuckles  to  hear  whether  it  gives  forth  any  sound, 
and  if  so,  what  kind ;  and  all  this  time  he  makes  com- 
parisons and  judges  of  its  qualities  as  compared  with  those 


46  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

of  other  objects  or  with  some  definite  standard,  thus  giv- 
ing exercise  and  culture  to  the  Judgment. 

6.  Object- Lessons  give  Culture  in  Language. — As  chil- 
dren gain  new  ideas  and  thoughts  they  require  new  words 
to  express  them.  The  careful  teacher  is  able  to  give 
much  incidental  instruction  in  the  composition  and  struc- 
ture of  sentences  as  he  gives  the  object-lesson.  Children 
also  learn  to  express  themselves  more  fluently  and  more 
Correctly  as  their  power  of  perception  becomes  more  ac- 
curate and  they  more  readily  distinguish  differences  and 
resemblances. 

7.  Object- Lessons  enable  the  Teacher  to  Present  Knowl- 
edge in  a  Concrete  Form. — Having  the  object  for  illustra- 
tion, the  pupil  more  readily  understands  and  comprehends 
the  knowledge  imparted.  Knowledge  is  thus  presented  in 
a  concrete  form,  and  the  child  is  thus  methodically  made 
to  learn  facts,  phenomena,  words,  etc.  in  a  form  most  in- 
teresting to  the  learner. 

8.  Object-Lessons  afford  Opportunities  for  Imparting 
General  Information. — The  teacher  need  not  confine 
himself  to  a  rigid  routine  in  giving  a  course  of  object- 
lessons.  Many  incidental  facts  may  be  taught,  many 
incidental  questions  may  be  judiciously  answered,  much 
curiosity  may  be  aroused  and  gratified;  and  all  this  will 
afford  the  teacher  an  excellent  opportunity  for  imparting 
valuable  information  in  away  which  will  make  it  impres- 
sive and  readily  remembered. 

9.  Object-Lessons  train  Pupils  to  TJiink. — Training  to 
think  is  the  most  valuable  part  of  education.  Object- 
lessons,  in  which  the  child  is  permitted  to  make  inquiries 
of  the  teacher,  examine  closely  and  critically  the  qualities 
of  the  object  which  is  the  topic  of  the  lesson,  and  have 


OBJ  ECT-I.ESSONS.  47 

liis  curiosity  gratified,  are  well  calculated  to  develop 
thought  ill  the  mind  of  the  child,  and  in  vhis  way  are 
especially  valuable  as  au  incentive. 

10.  Object- Lessons  make  Tlwught  Systematic. — Pupils 
are  not  onlv  trained  to  think,  but  thev  think  svsteniat- 
ically.  When  they  look  at  an  object  to  discover  its 
different  parts,  they  examine  closely.  They  notice  every 
quality  and  every  action.  They  ascertain  in  what  it  is 
similar  to  other  objects  which  they  have  examined,  and 
in  whut  respect  it  differs.  Thought  becomes  a  habit. 
Attention  is  undivided,  and  what  the  pupil  learns  he 
knows,  because  he  fixes  it  in  his  mind  in  a  systematic 
way. 

11.  Object- Lessons  create  Lnterest  in  Study. — The  child 
that  becomes  intei*ested  in  his  studies  becomes  interested 
in  the  school,  and  the  battle  is  half  won.  The  teacher 
Avho  can  convey  knowledge  which  will  attract  his  pupils 
to  him  need  have  little  fear  of  truancv.  Nothino;  is 
better  designed  to  make  the  school  attractive  and  inter- 
esting than  a  series  of  lessons  on  objects,  in  which  the 
pupil  can  be  made  to  love  knowledge  for  its  own  sake, 
while  he  does  not  appreciate  the  necessity  of  acquiring 
knowledo-e  as  a  means  of  culture. 

12.  Object- Lessons  arouse  Interest  in  the  Community. — 
The  teacher  who  can  create  interest  in  his  school  will  be 
successful  also  in  awaking  au  interest  in  school-matters 
in  the  community.  The  means  of  creating  a  spirit  of 
inquiry  in  the  community  by  systematic  object-lessons 
in  the  school  should  not  be  overlooked.  The  writer 
when  but  a  mere  boy  set  a  whole  neighborhood  to  dis- 
cussing by  asking  in  school  while  giving  au  object-les- 
son the  simple  question,  "  Why  is  it  that  when  a  single 


48  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

stalk  of  corn  grows  in  a  garden  the  ears  are  very  rarely 
perfect  ?"  Every  one  in  that  community — for  it  was  a 
farmino^  rescion — had  noticed  the  fact,  but  few  could 
give  tlie  reason.  The  interest  became  still  greater  when 
a  second  question  was  added,  as  follows  :  "  Why  does 
every  ear  of  corn  have  an  even  number  of  rows  of 
grains?"  No  better  plan  can  be  devised  to  arouse  an  in- 
terest on  the  part  of  patrons  than  that  of  creating  a 
spirit  of  inquiry,  first  ou  the  part  of  the  pupils,  and 
through  them  on  the  part  of  the  parents. 

Many  other  reasons  might  be  given  why  object-les- 
sons are  valuable,  showing  that  they  afford  important 
elementary  knowledge;  that  the  knowledge  imparted 
may  be  greatly  varied ;  that  school-life  may,  by  means 
of  object-lessons,  be  made  more  pleasant ;  that  they  cre- 
ate a  desire  for  knowledge ;  that  this  is  the  natural 
method  of  imparting  knowledge  to  beginners,  etc. ;  but 
these  need  only  be  mentioned. 

4.  The  Preparation  Needed  for  Object-Lessons. 

The  Material. — As  has  been  said,  in  order  that  object- 
lessons  may  be  valuable,  and  that  the  time  employed 
may  not  be  wasted  by  unsystematic  effort,  all  lessons  ou 
objects  should  be  systematic,  well  graded,  and  adaptal 
to  the  capacity  of  the  learner. 

Every  school  should  be  well  provided  with  the  neces- 
earj  material  to  make  the  work  most  effective.  There 
should  be  cabinets  of  leaves,  grains,  grasses,  minerals, 
metals,  coins,  specimens  of  wood,  insects,  etc.  There 
should  also  be  charts  of  colors,  geometrical  forms,  plants, 
leaves,  and  illustrations  of  natural  history  in  general. 
To  these  should  be  added  sets  of  mathematical  forms — ■ 


OBJECT-LESSONS.  49 

cubes,  cones,  cylinders,  -spheres,  spheroids,  and  the  like. 
There  sliould  also  be  a  quantity  of  apparatus  with  which 
to  perform  simple  and  inexpensive  experiments.  Should 
the  school -officers  fail  to  supply  these,  they  can  be  se- 
cured by  the  plans  suggested  in  the  author's  work  on 
School  Management. 

The  Teacher's  Preparation. — The  teacher  should  of 
course  see  that  all  this  material  is  at  hand  when  wanted, 
and  that  the  apparatus  is  in  proper  condition  to  be  used, 
in  order  that  no  failures  may  occur  or  time  be  wasted. 
He  must  also  be  thoroughly  prepared  on  the  subject 
which  he  attempts  to  teach.  He  should  have  at  com- 
mand all  the  knowledge  necessary  to  be  communicated. 
In  order  to  secure  this  result  he  should  consult  cyelo- 
pffidias,  textbooks,  and  the  people  by  whom  he  is  sur- 
rounded. He  may  gain  much  information  by  visiting 
mechanics,  farmers,  merchants,  and  others  in  the  neigh- 
borhood. 

He  should  also  prepare  himself  as  to  the  method  he 
desires  to  pursue  in  giving  the  lesson,  so  as  to  arouse  the 
greatest  interest  and  promote  the  ends  of  true  culture. 
He  should  have  an  outline,  and  adhere  rigidly  to  it, 
except  as  to  the  matter  of  conveying  incidental  knowl- 
edge. 

The  Pupil's  Preparation. — The  subject  of  the  lesson 
should  in  general  bo  assigned  beforehand,  in  order  that 
pupils  may  think  and  observe  before  the  recitation  is 
called.  This  will  give  training  to  the  child's  observing 
powers  and  make  the  lesson  all  the  more  valuable.  In 
the  advanced  stages  of  instruction  the  child  should  not 
only  observe ;  he  should  also  read  on  the  subject,  and 
glean  what  knowledge  he  can  in  this  way.  He  should 
4t 


50  MKTHOL>S    OF    TEACHING. 

also  be  encouraged  to  make  inquiries  of  liis  assooiiites  at 
home.  Tliis  will  arouse  interest  among  the  patrons,  as 
has  been  heretofore  suggested,  and  in  the  end  prove 
beneficial  to  both  parent  and  child. 

5.  Methods  of  Object-Lessons. 
The  proper  order  in  methods  of  giving  object-lessons 
is  the  following  : 

1.  The  Ghildren  should  be  Permitted  to  tell  All  they 
Know. — The  object  should  be  placed  where  all  the  mem- 
bers of  the  class  can  see  it,  and  then  by  a  series  of  ques- 
tions previously  arranged  the  teacher  should  give  each 
member  of  the  class  a  chance  to  express  himself  and 
tell  what  he  knows.  This  will  make  the  lesson  of  in- 
terest to  every  one;  all  will  jirepare  themselves,  and 
habits  of  thinking  will  be  encouraged.  It  will  also 
encourage  the  children  to  speak  their  actual  thoughts, 
and  speak  them  naturally,  ratlier  than  memorize  the 
words  of  a  textbook  and   repeat  them  listlessly. 

2.  The  Pupils  should  be  Led  to  Find  Out  what  they  can 
for  Themselves. — The  pajjil,  after  having  exhausted  his 
stock  of  knowledge,  should  be  led  to  discover  for  him- 
self by  a  series  of  judicious  questions  prepared  by  the 
teacher. 

Herbert  Spencer  says :  "  To  pursue  the  true  course  is 
simply  to  guide  the  intellect  to  its  appropriate  food,  and 
to.  habituate  the  mind  from  the  beginning  to  that  prac- 
tice of  self-help  which  it  must  ultimately  follow.  Chil- 
dren should  be  led  to  make  their  own  investigations  and 
to  draw  their  own  inferences.  They  should  be  told  as 
little  as  possible,  and  induced  to  discover  as  much  as 
possible.     Humanity  has   progressed  solely   by   self-in- 


OBJECT-LESSONS.  51 

striiction,  and  that  to  achieve  the  best  results  each  mind 
must  progress  somewhat  after  the  same  fashion  is  con- 
tinually proved  by  the  marked  success  of  self-made 
men." 

It  is  the  business  of  the  teacher  to  excite  the  curiosity 
and  create  the  appetite  for  knowledge.  It  is  his  duty 
also  to  show  the  child  how  this  appetite  may  be  gratified, 
but  it  is  not  his  duty  to  satisfy  it.  The  child  grows 
strong  by  what  it  conquers.  The  less  the  teacher  does 
for  it  and  the  more  it  does  for  itself,  the  wiser  the  meth- 
od of  culture. 

3.  The  Teacher  should  Communicate  such  Knowledge  as 
the  Child  cannot  Gain  by  its  Own  Efforts. — This  is  the 
last  step  to  be  taken  in  the  method  of  imparting  knowl- 
edge by  object-lessons.  After  tlie  pupil  has  told  all  he 
can,  and  the  teacher  has  led  him  to  discover  for  himself 
everything  that  is  in  the  child's  power  to  discover,  it 
then  becomes  the  duty  of  the  teacher  to  impart  such 
other  knowledge  as  he  may  possess,  and  thus  add  to  the 
interest  and  importance  of  the  lesson.  The  teacher  has 
it  in  his  power  to  do  almost  unlimited  good  by  impart- 
ing not  only  knowledge  connected  directly  witli  the 
lesson  but  such  also  as  may  have  only  an  incidental 
bearing. 

To  some  extent  this  order  of  method  may  be  ignored 
where  the  interest  is  very  great,  or  where  the  fact  to  be 
communicated  by  the  teacher  is  so  important  or  so  inter- 
esting as  to  make  it  wise  to  interfere  with  the  regular  meth- 
od by  stating  the  fact  when  it  will  be  likely  to  make  the 
most  lasting  impression,  or  where  it  will  illustrate  most 
pointedly  a  truth  or  a  principle  of  importance. 


52  MET  HODS    OF   TEACHING. 

6.  Preliminary  Instruction. 

Previous  to  any  definite  course  of  instruction  by  object- 
lessons  children  should  have  some  training  of  the  senses. 

The  sense  of  sight  should  be  so  cultivated  as  to  enable 
the  child  to  distinguish  the  shapes  of  objects,  also  their 
size,  color,  etc.  The  matter  of  rapid  observation  also  is 
important.  Many  exercises  may  be  given  to  develop  the 
quick-sightedness  of  the  child.  A  child  may  be  made  to 
look  at  the  interior  of  a  room  for  a  minute  and  then  state 
what  it  has  seen.  An  excellent  exercise  is  that  of  having 
the  child  describe  what  it  saw  durinoa  walk  of  ten  minutes. 
Oiher  plans  equally  valuable  may  be  devised. 

The  sense  of  hearincj  may  be  developed  by  teaching 
the  child  to  distinguish  objects  by  sound,  by  discrimi- 
nating between  high  and  low,  loud  and  soft,  sounds; 
also  to  locate  objects  and  to  judge  distance  b}'  sound. 
In  a  short  time  it  will  learn  to  distinguish  persons  by 
their  footsteps  and  friends  by  their  voices;  it  will  also 
learn  to  distinguish  the  bark  of  different  dogs,  the  sono;s 
of  birds,  and  even  the  lowing  of  different  cows  in  a  herd. 
All  these  sounds  may  be  turned  to  practical  advantage  in 
the  training  of  hearing. 

The  sense  of  taste  may  be  cultivated  by  permitting  the 
child  to  distinguish  first  between  those  objects  whose  taste 
is  most  in  contrast,  as  bitter  and  sweet,  sweet  and  sour, 
etc.,  and  then  bv  testing  the  varving  deo-rces  of  sweet- 
ness,  bitterness,  and  sourness. 

The  sense  of  sinell  may  first  be  trained  by  placing 
before  the  child  objects  M'hose  odors  are  strong,  being 
careful  to  contra?^;  those  which  are  agreeable  M'ith  those 
which  are  disagreeable  as  far  as  jiossible,  as  onions  and 


OBJECT- LESSOXS.  53 

cologne-wtitor,  garlic  and  cinnamon.  Tlie  child  may  also 
be  taught  to  distinguish  the  various  Iviuds  of  flowers  by 
smell,  as  roses,  lilies,  pinks,  and  geraniums,  and  then  the 
varieties  of  these;  so  also  with  fruits,  plants,  spices,  and 
vegetables. 

The  sense  of  touch  may  also  be  greatly  cultivated 
and  developed  by  proper  exercise.  The  child  sliould 
be  taught  early  to  distinguish  rough  and  smooth,  hard 
and  soft,  warm  and  cold.  It  may  then  be  trained  to 
distinguish  objects  from  one  another  by  toucli,  as  books, 
knives,  pens,  and  pencils,  and  after  this  the  different  va- 
rieties of  the  same  kind  of  object,  as  the  varieties  of  grain, 
leaves,  fruits,  coins,  or  flowers.  It  may  be  trained  to  some 
extent  also  to  distinguish  shape  as  well  as  size  by  the  sense 
of  touch. 

Of  course  most  of  these  exercises  ought  to  be  given 
before  the  child  enters  the  school,  but  an  enterprising 
teacher  will  be  able  to  do  much,  even  in  school,  in  the 
way  of  training  the  senses,  and  at  the  same  time  create 
much  interest  and  amusement  by  having  an  occasional 
short  exercise  in  sense-training. 

7.  Cautions  to  be  Regarded. 

The  system  of  teaching  by  object-lessons,  like  all  other 
systems  of  teaching,  is  likely  to  be  abused  by  those  who 
do  not  fully  appreciate  the  importance  of  the  system  and 
tiie  importance  of  the  educational  principles  on  which  it 
is  based.  Errors  are  likely  to  be  made  which  may  seri- 
ously interfere  with  the  success  of  the  system.  The  chief 
cautions  to  be  regarded  are  the  following: 

Cautions. — 1.  In  teaching  by  object-lessons  remember 
that  the  aim  is  to  secure  culture  and  impart  instruction. 


54  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

2.  Holding  an  object  before  a  class  and  simply  asking 
questions  as  to  what  it  is,  what  it  is  for,  where  it  is  found, 
is  not  properly  an  object-lesson. 

3.  Do  not  tell  a  child  what  you  can  lead  him  to  discover 
for  himself. 

4.  Do  not  give  the  child  a  number  of  words  to  be 
memorized  and  given  in  answer  to  your  questions. 

5.  Train  the  child  to  observe  for  itself,  even  though 
its  first  efforts  be  erratic  and  of  little  practical  benefit. 

6.  Be  careful  that  the  children  acquire  ideas  rather 
than  words. 

7.  Adapt  the  subject  and  the  matter  of  the  lesson  to 
the  capacity  of  the  children  to  be  taught. 

8.  Give  short  rather  than  long  le-ssons. 

9.  Let  your  lessons  be  systematic,  giving  lessons  on 
form,  color,  etc.,  before  you  take  up  those  of  a  fragment- 
ary or  promiscuous  character.  Each  lesson  should  have 
an  aim,  and  should  legitimately  follow  its  predecessor. 

10.  Do  not  try  to  develop  in  the  mind  of  the  child 
thoughts  Mith  which  he  is  already  familiar. 

11.  Do  not  permit  yourself  and  your  pupils  to  be- 
come so  much  interested  in  the  objects  that  you  neglect 
the  lesson  to  be  derived  from  the  object. 

12.  Object-lessons  should  not  be  given  from,  books. 
If  the  teacher  cannot  trust  his  memory  as  to  what  he 
wants  to  do,  he  should  have  an  outline  of  his  work. 
The  man  who  gives  an  object-lesson  must  be  alive  and 
awake  in  the  presence  of  his  class. 

A  course  of  object-leasons  should  include  lessons  on 
form  and  lessons  on  Color,  since  form  and  color  are  the 
two  qualities  of  objects  to  which  the  child  gives  most 


OBJECT-LESSONS.  55 

eager  attention.  To  these  may  be  added  lessons  on  the 
Parts  of  Objects,  the  general ,  Qualities  of  Objects,  the 
Uses  of  Objects. 

Lessons  on  Form. 

Children  at  an  early  age  learn  to  distinguish  objects 
by  their  shape  or  form.  It  is,  indeed,  the  variety  in 
form  which  first  attracts  the  attention  of  the  child. 
Were  all  objects  of  the  same  shape,  they  would  attract 
no  more  notice  than  so  many  bricks  or  similarly-shaped 
pieces  of  timber.  The  child  learns  form  by  the  difference 
in  shape.  It  seems  proper,  therefore,  that  a  course  of 
object-lessons  should  begin  with  lessons  on  form.  This 
same  principle  was  recognized  by  Froebel  in  placing  be- 
fore the  child  the  cube,  the  sphere,  and  the  cylinder  as 
the  second  gift. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  it  is  not  sufficient  to 
point  out  an  object,  call  attention  to  its  shape,  and  then 
give  the  name;  the  child  himself  must  be  taught  to  dis- 
timruish  the  form  and  associate  the  name.  He  must  be 
trained  to  gain  knowledge  for  himself.  He  must  be  led 
to  observe  closely  everything  with  which  he  comes  in 
contact,  and  thus  train  his  power  of  perception  and  lay 
the  foundation  for  an  harmonious  mental  development. 

The  first  lessons  in  form  may  consist  in  the  selection 
of  such  objects  as  those  with  which  the  child  is  familiar. 
But  among  these  should  be  such  as  are  similar  in  shape, 
3S  a  ball,  an  orange,  or  a  marble,  to  represent  tlie  sphere ; 
a  pencil,  a  stick  of  candy,  to  re[)resent  the  cylinder;  and 
other  objects  to  represent  squares,  circles,  cubes,  and  the 
other  geometrical  figures.  Of  course  these  technical 
names  need  not  be  used  in  the  first  lessons.     Instead  of 


56 


METHODS    OF    TEACIIIXG. 


these  the  teacher  may  use  the  terms  ball-shaped,  shaped 
like  a  lead  pencil,  shaped  I'he  a  ring,  etc. 

These  lessons  on  similarity  of  shape  should  be  fc  I- 
lowed  by  such  as  distinguish  differences  in  shape,  and 
from  these  the  lessons  would  naturally  pass  to  the  ordi- 
nary geometrical  forms,  including  lines,  angles,  etc. 

If  possible,  the  teacher  should  have  a  box  or  a  chart 
of  forms.  The  plane  figures  may  be  cut  from  card- 
board, and  the  others  may  be  cut  from  apjiles  or  potatoes 
in  the  absence  of  the  prepared  forms  -which  are  manufac- 
tured for  use  in  giving  a  series  of  these  lessons. 

The  pupils  should  also  be  required  to  reproduce  such 
forms  as  they  can  on  slate,  blackboard,  or  paper ;  it  will 
give  them  pleasant  and  useful  employment,  and  at  the 
same  time  serve  to  keep  them  busy. 

Instruction  in  geometrical  form  should  begin  with 
lines,  and  from  these  proceed  to  angles,  surfaces,  and 
finally  volumes.  The  lessons  on  lines  should  also  in- 
clude the  positions  of  lines.  The  following  outline  of 
forms  may  prove  valuable  : 


1,  Elements. 


\ 


2.  Lines . 


3.  Posilionof 
lines 


4.  Anglen. 


Lines, 
Angles, 
Surfaces, 
Volumes. 

Straight, 

Curved, 

Broken. 

'  Oblique, 
Vertieal, 
Horizontal, 
Parallel, 
Perpendicu- 
lar. 

Acute, 

Obtuse, 

Right. 


5.  Surfaces., 


G.  Triangles- 


Triangles, 

Quadrilaterals, 

Pentagons, 

Hexagons, 

Heptagons,  etc., 

Circles. 

r  Equilateral, 
a.  Sides...  i  Isosceles, 
Scalene. 
Right-angled, 
6.  Angles.  -{  Acute-angled, 
[  Obtuse-angled. 


1    Quadri- 
laterals. 


Parallelograms. 

Trapezoid, 
Trapezium. 


Square, 
Rectangle, 
Rhombus, 
Rhomboid. 


OBJECT-LESSONS. 


57 


'  Circnmferonce, 

r                r  Cube, 

Diameter, 

rnsm.  -.  Xriangularprism, 
[      etc. 

Radius, 

Arc, 

.  Parti  of 
a  circle. ■ 

Chord,                  9.  Volumes, 
begmeut. 

Pyramid. 

Frustum  of  pyramid, 

Sector, 

Cylinder, 

Quadrant, 

Coue, 

Semicircle, 

Frustum  of  cone, 

Semi-circutofer- 

Sphere. 

euce. 

To  these  miglit  be  added  the  conic  section?,  parabola, 
hyperbola,  and  ellipse;  also  other  figures,  as  the  crescent, 
spirals,  ovals,  hemispheres,  and  spheroids. 

Lessons  in  Color. 

The  form  of  objects  is  taught  almost  wholly  by  the  use 
of  the  eve.  In  a  similar  manner  the  eve  alone  is  used  to 
determine  color.  Indeeil,  sight  is  the  most  useful,  as  it  is 
the  most  nearly  perfect,  of  our  senses.  Lessons  in  color 
are  therefore  valuable  in  giving  training  to  our  most  im- 
portant sense. 

Golor-Blindness. — Some  persons  are  incapable  of  distin- 
guishing colors  definitely.  Many  are  unable  to  distinguish 
between  green  and  blue  in  the  sunlight,  and  a  still  greater 
number  are  unable  to  distino-uish  between  these  two  colors 
by  lamplight.  Many  also  are  unable  to  distinguish  any 
of  the  intermediate  colors  between  black  and  white.  A 
prominent  lawyer  acquaintance  always  insisted  on  calling 
his  green  satchel  red,  and  I  have  in  mind  now  a  former 
pupil  who  was  afflicted  with  color-blindness  to  such  an 
extent  as  to  be  unable  to  distinguish  red  from  green, 
both  colors  appearing  the  same  to  him.  On  pointing 
out  a  scarlet  oreraniura  flower  to  him,  he  insisted  that 
the  scarlet  flower  and  the  green  leaf  had  the  s;irae  color. 
On  askino  him  how  he  distinouished  the  red  cherrv  from 


58  METHODS    OF    TEACHIXG. 

the  green  leaf,  his  facetious  reply  was  that  he  had  two  testa 
— one  was  by  the  difference  in  shape,  and  the  other  by  the 
difference  in  taste. 

Prof.  Calkins  makes  the  following  statements:  "That 
the  celebrated  chemist  Dalton  thought  the  red  gown  in 
which  he  was  installed  was  a  blue  one,  and  that  on  his 
friends  giving  him  a  pair  of  red  stockings  to  wear,  in- 
stead of  the  white  ones  he  usually  wore,  he  could  notice 
no  difference  except  that  they  appeared  to  him  to  be 
rather  dirty. 

"Bartholomew  the  sculptor  could  not  distinguish  be- 
tween a  crimson  curtain  and  a  green  one.  Yet  he  began 
his  artistic  career  as  a  portrait-painter,  and  once  gave  the 
cheelvs  of  a  female  sitter  a  hue  of  bright  green." 

It  was  estimated  from  examinations  made  in  England 
and  Scotland  "that  one  person  out  of  every  fifteen  was 
unable  to  distinguish  all  the  ordinary  colors;  one  in  fifty- 
five  confounded  red  with  green;  one  in  sixty,  brown  with 
green;  one  in  forty-six,  blue  with  green. 

The  causes  of  color-blindness  have  not  yet  been  dis- 
covered, nor  is  it  yet  known  whether  early  training  can 
overcome  the  defect  or  not ;  but  certainly  something 
can  be  done  to  teach  those  who  are  not  color-blind  lo 
distinguish  not  oulv  color,  but  shades  of  color,  at  an 
earlv  aire. 

Every  school  should  be  supplied  with  a  chart  of  col- 
ors, and  pupils  should  be  supplied  with  colored  cards  or 
worsteds  to  corres})ond  witli  the  colors  on  the  chart.  By 
comparing  the  colored  cards  with  the  chart,  and  by  the 
teacher's  requiring  the  pu})il  to  select  colors  when  named, 
most  pupils  can  be  trained  to  distinguish  without  dilii 
culty. 


OBJECT-LESSONS.  59 

Prof.  Calkins  advises,  in  addition  to  the  color-chart 
and  colored  worsted,  "a  box  of  colored  cards,  a  set  of 
color  cubes,  pieces  of  silk  of  various  colors,  sealing- ^Yax, 
wafers,  colored  papers,  flowers  and  fruits  in  their  season, 
a  glass  prism,  colored  crayons  for  the  blackboard,  etc." 
He  also  suirsrests  as  a  substitute  for  the  color-chart  that 
the  teacher  procure  a  piece  of  perforated  cardboard  and 
work  upon  it  squares  of  about  two  inches  with  colored 
worsteds,  leaving  inch-spaces  between. 

An  iug-enious  contrivance  which  answers  the  double 
purpose  of  numeral  frame  and  color-chart  was  described 
to  me  bv  a  voun^  ladv,  who  savs  she  stretches  twelve 
wires  from  one  side  of  the  window- frame  to  the  other, 
on  which  she  places  spools  wound  with  worsteds  of  the 
different  colors,  and  in  this  way  is  enabled  to  teach  both 
color  and  number  by  means  of  the  same  piece  of  ap- 
paratus. 

For  a  detailed  course  of  lessons  on  color  no  book  is 
superior  to  Culkins's  Primary  Object- Lessons,  a  work 
which  every  teacher  should  possess. 

The  first  step  consists  in  teaching  the  three  primary 
colors — red,  yellow,  and  blue.  The  pupil  may  be  taught 
also  that  these  are  known  as  the  primary  colors  because 
they  cannot  be  produced  by  the  combination  of  any 
other  colors. 

In  teaching  the  secondary  colors  the  children  should 
be  taught  that  they  are  named  secondary  because  each 
of  them'  is  composed  of  two  other  colors ;  thus,  green  ia 
a  mixture  of  yelloio  and  blue  ;  orange,  a  mixture  of  red 
and  yellow ;  purple,  a  mixture  of  red  and  blue.  These 
six  colors,  with  the  addition  of  indigo,  which  is  a  com- 
bination of  purple  and  blue,  are  the  colors  of  the  rain- 


60  METHODS    OF   TEACHIXG. 

bow,  and  are  known  as  the  prismatic  colors,  because 
when  a  ray  of  h'ght  is  dissolved  by  means  of  a  prism  it 
is  found  to  consist  of  these  colors. 

After  pupils  are  able  to  distinguish  the  primary  and 
the  secondary  colors  they  may  be  taught  to  distinguish 
the  principal  shades,  tints,  and  hues. 

By  a  shade  is  meant  any  color  produced  by  mixing 
some  black  with  the  original  color,  and  thus  producing 
a  darker  color;  thus,  the  shades  of  red  are  maroon,  crim- 
son, magenta,  etc.;  of  yellow,  citrine  and  saffron;  oi  blue, 
indigo,  j)russian  blue,  plura-color,  etc. 

By  a  tint  is  meant  any  color  produced  by  mixing  some 
white  with  the  original  color,  and  thus  producing  a 
lighter  color;  thus,  the  tints  of  red  are  pink,  rose,  etc.; 
of  yelloio,  straw  and  primrose ;  of  blue,  light  blue,  sky 
blue,  etc. 

Bv  a  hue  is  meant  the  combination  of  two  colors  in 
unequal  proportions  ;  thus  scarlet,  cherry,  and  vermilion 
are  hues  of  red;  lemon,  sulphur,  and  canary,  hues  of 
yellow;  salmon  and  buff,  hues  of  orange;  emerald,  pea- 
green,  sea-green,  hues  of  green. 

The  irretrular  common  colors  raav  also  be  taught  at 
this,  time,  as  brown  with  its  varieties,  chestnut,  chocolate, 
russet,  auburn,  snuff,  etc. ;  and  gray  with  its  varieties, 
steel-gray,  pearly  gray,  etc. 

Pupils  should  be  trained  to  distinguish  colors  that  are 
alike;  after  that  those  which  are  unlike.  After  this 
they  should  be  required  to  select  objects  and  group 
them  according  to  color.     The  words 

Bed,  Yellow,  Blue,  White, 

may  be  written  on  the  board  as  indicated,  and  under 
these,  or  a  similar  heading  on  the  pupils'  slates,  the 


OBJECT-LESSONS.  Gl 

children  should  place  the  names  of  objecis  which  have 
the  color  mentioned. 

They  may  be  taught  also  by  actual  experiment  with 
paints  or  crayons  the  result  of  mixing  colors ;  thus,  that 
red  and  blue  produce  purple;  red  and  yellow,  orange; 
etc.  This  may  be  done  with  water-color  paints  on  pa- 
per, or  even  with  colored  ci'ayons  on  the  blackboard. 

The  complementary  colors,  or  those  which  produce 
white  light,  may  be  explained  to  the  children.  They 
may  be  taught  that  of  two  complementary  colors  one 
is  primary  and  the  other  secondary,  thus  making  together 
the  three  primary  colors.  These  colors  may  be  grouped 
as  follows  : 

1.  Red  and  green,    ^       n  ' 

^        '     [  yellow. 

2.  Blue  and  orange,  <       ij 

»  '    (  yellow. 

3.  Yellow  and  purple,  <  ^^j^^'^ 

Lastly,  they  may  be  taught  that  certain  combinations 
of  color  are  pleasing  to  the  eye,  because  they  are  harmo- 
nious. The  complementary  colors  are  always  harmonious. 
The  following  colors  are  given,  with  those  with  which 
they  harmonize: 

Blue.— I.  Willi  salmon,  drab,  orange,  white,  straw, 
maize,  chestnut,  brown,  black,  or  gold. 

2.  AVith  scarlet  and  purple,  orange  and  black,  orange 
and  green. 

3.  AVith  brown,  crimson,  and  gold;  or  orange,  black, 
and  white. 

Blacl:. — 1.  With  white,  orange,  maize,  scarlet,  lilac, 
pink,  slate,  drab,  or  buff. 


62  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

2.  "With  yellow  aud  crimson. 

3.  With  orange,  blue,  and  scarlet. 

Q-imson. — 1.    With    drab,   gold,    orange,   maize,    or 
puTple. 

Green.— 1.  With  scarlet,  gold,  yellow,  or  orange. 

2.  With  scarlet  and  blue. 

3.  With  crimson,  blue,  and  gold. 

Lilac— I.    With    crimson,    gold,    maize,    cherry,    or 
scarlet. 

2.  With  gold  and  crimson. 

3.  AVith  scarlet,  black,  and  white;  yellow,  scarlet,  and 
white. 

Purple. — 1,  With  gold,  maize,  or  blue. 

2.  AV^ith  scarlet  and  gold,  or  scarlet  and  white. 

3.  AVith  scarlet,  blue,  and  orange. 
Red. — 1.  AVith  gold,  white,  or  gray. 

2.  AVith  orange  and  green,  or  yellow  and  black. 

3.  AVith  gold,  black,  and  white, 

Scarlet. — 1.  AVith  slate-color,  white,  or  green. 

2.  AVith  black  and  white,  blue  and  white,  or  blue  and 
yellow. 

3.  AVith  blue,  black,  and  yellow. 

White. — 1.  AVith  scarlet,  crimson,  cherry,  pink,  brown, 
black,  or  blue. 

Yclloic. — 1.  AA^ith  chestnut,  brown,  red,  crimscin,  black, 
or  purjile. 
.  2.  AVith  purple  and  crimson. 

3.  AVith  purple,  scarlet,  and  blue. 

Orange. — AVith  blue,  black,  crimson,  or  green. 

Harmony  of  color  should  always  be  considered  io 
Louse-decoration,  in  the  choice  of  furniture,  in  the  ar- 
rangement of   rcojns,   wearing    apparel,   bouquets,   and 


OBJECT-LESSONS.  63 

wherever  else  there  is  an  opportunity  to  cultivate  the 
taste  of  chilclreu. 

Objects  and  their  Parts. 

In  order  to  give  vahiable  lessons  on  objects,  tlie  teach- 
er should  have  a  collection  of  various  objects  on  hand 
from  which  he  may  select.  The  object  should  be  placed 
before  the  class  \Yhere  each  pupil  may  examine  it  thor- 
oughly and  prepare  to  name  the  diiferent  parts  of  which 
it  consists,  together  with  the  use  of  the  object  itself  and 
the  uses  of  the  various  parts.  The  following  lesson 
will  suggest  the  method  to  be  pursued: 

MODEL    LESSON. 

Subject. — A  HAT. 

The  teacher  holds  the  hat  before  the  class  and  asks 
the  name  of  it.  The  name  is  then  spelled  and  Avritten 
on  the  blackboard.  He  then  points  to  a  particular  part 
of  the  hat  and  asks  the  name.  The  answer  is  probably 
body.  The  word  Parts  is  written  on  the  board,  and 
under  this  the  word  bodi/.  Pupils  are  asked  to  name 
other  parts  as  each  part  is  touched  in  succession  by  the 
teacher,  and  all  the  names  given  are  written  in  the  col- 
umn under  the  word  Parts.  The  column  will  probably 
consist  of  the  following  :  bodij,  brim,  croicn,  band,  bind- 
ing,  lining,  trimming. 

The  teacher  then  asks  the  pupils  to  touch  particular 
parts  of  the  hat  as  he  names  them.  He  also  asks  them 
to  point  to  tlie  word  on  the  blackboard  while  some  other 
pupil  points  to  the  part  and  another  names  it. 

After  having  learned  the  parts,  the  teacher  may  ask 


64  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

for  the  use  of  the  hat ;  tlieu  the  use  of  each  individual 
part,  and  as  these  uses  are  mentioned  they  may  be  writ- 
ten on  the  board  opposite  the  parts  named.  The  table 
M-ill  stand  somewhat  as  follows: 

Hat. 

Parts.  Uses. 

Body  :  To  cover  the  sides  of  the  head  and  give  shape 

to  the  hat. 
Brim :  To  protect  the  neck  and  the  face  from  sun- 

light and  rain. 
Crown :        To  cover  and  protect  the  top  of  the  head. 
Band:  To  keep  the  hat  from  getting  too  large;  to 

make  it  look  well. 
Binding:      To  keep  the  edge  of  the  brim  from  wearing 

out. 
Lining :        To  keep  the  sweat  of  the  head  from  soiling 

the  material  of  the  hat. 
Trimming:  To  make  the  hat  pretty  and  attractive. 

As  far  as  possible,  the  shape  and  the  color  of  the  vari- 
ous parts  may  also  be  the  to])ics  for  questions,  and  before 
the  lesson  closes  the  pupils  may  be  called  on  individually 
to  name  each  a  part  of  the  hat  and  tell  its  use,  thus,  poiut- 
ino-  to  the  brim  of  the  hat:  "This  is  the  brim  of  the  hat; 
its  use  is  to  protect  the  head  and  the  neck  from  sunlight 
and  rain." 

.  Similar  lessons  may  be  given  on  any  of  the  following 
objects :  table,  chair,  stool,  bench,  box,  desk,  pencil,  bell, 
clock,  etc. 

The  following  list  of  objects,  with  the  ]jarts  named,  is 
given  with  the  hope  that  it  may  prove  valuable  to  inex- 
perienced teachers : 


OBJECT-LESSONS. 


65 


f 

point, 

'  Eing, 

Bowl, 

1.  Pin I 

Head, 

Shaft, 

Handle, 

1 

Shaft. 
Back, 

Key... 

Barrel, 

Wa'rds,       ^■^^"P- 

Upper  riiu, 
Lower  rim, 
Bottom, 

2.  Chair.... 

KJXZtXVf 

Legs, 
Eouuds. 

^  Grooves. 

Inside, 
Outside, 

'  Handle, 

_  Edges. 

'  Panels, 
Hinges,     6. 

BeU...- 

Cup, 
Tongue, 

3.  Door ■ 

Stiles, 

Mouth. 

'  Surface, 

Eails, 

Edges, 

Latch, 

■  Stem, 

Faces, 

,  Lock. 
'  Blade, 

?ulp,         9-  Cent..  • 

ililling. 
Impression, 

Bows, 

Juice, 

Image, 

Limbs, 

.\pple.  - 

Veins, 

Date, 

4.  Scissors.  ■ 

Eivet,        '• 
Edges, 

Eve, 
Dimples, 

.  Superscription 

Back, 

Core, 

Point, 

Seetls, 

.  Shaft. 

.  Seed-case. 

■  Upper, 

■ 

'  Rivets, 

Sole, 

Fiame, 

Heel, 

Heel, 

Tip, 

1.  Handle,  ■ 

Sides, 
Back, 

Eyelets, 
Binding, 

Spring, 

Scams, 

10.  Knife- 

2. Pivot, 

Grooves,                 ,,  g. 
Plate.                     ^^-  ^'^°^- 
'  Edge, 

Tongue, 
Liuing, 
Insole, 

Point, 

Counter, 

3.  Blade...  ■ 

Back, 
Notch, 

Shank, 
Welt, 

Sides, 

Strings, 

k 

.  Maker's  name. 

Buttons, 

.  Yamps. 

Tlie  teacher  will  be  able  to  outline  a  number  of  other 
topics  with  sufficient  accuracy  to  make  them  both  inter- 
esting and  instructive. 

Lessons  similar  to  the  foregoing,  but  more  extended  in 
character,  maybe  given  after  the  children  learn  to  distin- 
guish the  res^jective  parts  readily;  thus,  not  only  the  parts 
of  objects  and  the  uses  of  the  parts  may  be  taught,  but 
also  the  material  of  which  the  parts  consist,  where  this 
material  is  obtained,  and  by  what  persons  the  various 
parts  are  prepared. 

b 


G6 


METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 


Qualities  of  Objects. 

Follo-^vlng  naturally  in  order  after  the  lassons  on  tlie 
parts  of  objects  come  lessons  on  the  qualities  of  objects. 
Thus,  in  a  lesson  on  glass  we  could  teach  that  it  is  trans- 
parent, brittle,  smooth,  colorless.  In  connection  Avith  this 
might  be  taught  the  uses  of  glass,  the  kinds  of  glass,  and 
the  process  of  manufacture.  Material  enough  would  be 
found  in  this  topic  to  make  a  half  dozen  or  more  lessons. 

The  difference  between  qualities  should  be  taught  by 
illustration ;  thus,  between  rough  and  smooth,  transparent 
and  opaque,  etc.  The  names  of  a  number  of  objects  as 
given  by  the  pupils  should  be  written  on  the  blackboard, 
and  thus  the  difference  might  be  impressed  more  firmly 
on  the  minds  of  the  children.  For  instance,  in  teaching 
children  that  transparent  objects  are  those  through  which 
we  can  see  clearly,  and  tiiat  opaque  objects  are  those 
through  which  we  cannot  see,  let  the  columns  on  the 
board  be  arranged  somewhat  as  follows: 


Glass, 
Water, 
Alcohol, 
Air, 
Some  ice, 


are  transparent. 


Slate, 

Iron, 

Stone. 

Wood, 

Lead, 

Chalk, 

Tin, 

Silver, 

Gold, 


■  are  opaque. 


Let  the  questions  be  asked,  Why  do  we  say  glass  13 
transparent?     Why  do  we  say  gold  is  opaque? 

[n  a  similar  manner  the  difference  may  be  taught 
let  ween 


Hard  and  soft, 
Brittle  and  flexible. 


Light  and  heavy. 
Rough  and  smooth, 


OBJECT-LESSONS.  67 

Transparent  and  translucent,        Solid  and  liquid, 
Combustible  and  inflammable.   Adhesive  and  cohesive, 
Natural  and  artificial,  Odorous  and  aromatic  j 

and  thus  also  the  qualities  indicated  by  the  words  flex- 
ible, ductile,  elastic,  malleable,  sonorous,  concave,  convex, 
spherical,  cylindrical,  brilliant,  soluble,  serrated,  edible, 
tasteless,  nutritious,  porous,  fibrous,  etc. 

A  higher  course  of  object-lessons  would  embrace  the 
elements  of  the  various  natural  sciences — botany,  phys- 
iology, geology,  mineralogy,  zoology,  and  others. 


LANGUAGE. 

IxTKODUcrriox. 

Language  is  the  means  by  Avbich  we  communicate 
our  thouglits  to  one  another.  The  word  is  derived  from 
the  Latin  lingua,  the  tongue,  and  meant,  primarily,  spoken 
language.  The  term  is  now,  however,  applied  to  both 
written  and  spoken  language.  Language  is  necessary  to 
thought,  and  it  was  held  by  even  so  eminent  an  author- 
ity as  Sir  William  Hamilton  that  there  can  be  no  thinking 
without  words. 

A  course  of  instruction  in  Language  includes  instruc- 
tion in  Talking,  Reading,  Pronunciation,  Orthography, 
Lexicology,  Grammar,  Composition,  and  Rhetoric.  This 
course  may  be  extended  in  the  higher  grade  to  the  study 
of  English  Literature  and  English  Classics,  Philology, 
and  the  various  foreign  languages. 

Learning  to  Talk. 

This  part  of  the  work  is  usually  completed  before  the 
child  reaches  school.  At  least,  the  child  has  already 
learned  to  use  its  organs  of  speech  in  the  articulation 
of  the  usual  sounds  of  the  language  it  speaks,  and  it 
already  possesses  a  reasonably  full  vocabulary.  It  learns 
its  language  at  the  home  fireside,  partly  by  imitating 
the  speech  of  its  associates,  partly  by  the  law  of  asso- 

6S 


INTRODUCnON.  69 

elation  as  it  hears  the  names  of  objects  and  actions  called 
from  day  to  day  in  the  ordinary  intercourse  of  the 
family. 

The  teacher  has  but  little  to  do  except  correct  false 
articulation,  mispronunciation  learned  at  home,,  and  add 
to  the  vocabulary  of  the  child  from  day  to  day  as  he 
communicates  knowlede-e  and  su2;2rests  new  ideas.  Both 
teacher  and  parents  should  be  specially  careful  to  use 
only  correct  speech,  in  order  that  the  language  of  the 
child  may  be  correct  as  a  habit;  for  this,  like  all  other 
habits,  -svill  prove  lasting.  We  are  all  M-itnesses  in  our 
own  speech  to  the  truth  of  this  statement.  The  speak- 
ers and  writers  who  make  no  mistakes  eithei  iu  pro- 
nunciation or  in  the  grammatical  use  of  language,  fx-om 
Shakespeare  and  Addison  down,  are  indeed  rare. 


CHAPTER    I. 
Reading. 

The  first  important  work  that  the  child  undertakes 
on  enterino;  school  is  that  of  Icarnins;  to  read.  This 
becomes  necessary  to  all  other  school-work,  and  it  is 
therefore  the  first  duty  the  teacher  has  to  perform  if  the 
child  doas  not  already  know  how  to  read. 

In  learning  to  read  two  things  are  necessary  primarily  : 
these  are,  first,  that  the  pupil  must  learn  to  read  intc/li- 
gentJy — that  is,  read  the  page  silently,  recognizing  the 
printed  or  written  signs  as  words  representing  thought, 
and  have  an  intelligent  understanding  of  M'liat  he  reads; 
secondly,  the  child  must  read  intcUigibhj — that  is,  read 
to  others  in  such  a  manner  that  thev  mav  understand 
clearly  what  is  meant  by  the  author.  To  these  two  may 
be  added  two  other  essentials — that  the  child  must  read 
gracefully,  and  that  he  must  read  forcefidhj — and  we 
have  the  essence  of  all  good  reading  and  all  good  elo- 
cution.    Formulated,  the  essentials  are  these: 

1.  Tlie  child  must  read  intelUgenthj ; 

2.  He  must  read  intelUglbhj  ; 

3.  He  must  read  gracefully  ; 

4.  He  must  read  forcefully. 

All  teaching  of  reading  must  aim  at  accomplishing 
these  four  things. 
70 


EEADIXG.  71 

I.  Objects  of  Learning  to  Read. 

The  two  main  objects  of  teacliing  a  child  to  read 
are — 

1.  To  enable  him  to  gain  information. 

2.  To  enable  Mm  to  impart  information. 

These  objects  must  be  kept  constantly  in  view.  No 
advocate  of  oral  instruction,  however  extreme,  would 
claim  that  a  child  should  acquire  his  knowledge  entirely 
through  the  oral  instruction  of  the  teacher.  Children 
must  learn  to  read  in  order  to  acquire  knowledge,  and 
also  that  they  may  impart  knowledge  to  others  by 
reading. 

To  the  foregoing  may  be  added  a  third  object  in  learn- 
ing to  read — namely,  pleasure.  The  pupil  learns  to  read 
partly  for  the  pleasure  which  it  will  afford  him  in  after 
life  to  peruse  newspapers,  magazines,  and  books,  and  not 
only  glean  from  the  j)rinted  page  the  news  of  the  day, 
but  also  be  able  to  enjoy  the  beauties  of  thought  and 
language  with  which  he  meets  in  his  reading  of  the  best 
literature.  Under  the  head  of  })leasure  as  an  object  of 
learning  to  read  may  be  included  also  the  pleasure  which 
elegant  reading  affords  the  hearer.  AVe  learn  to  read  not 
only  that  we  may  please  ourselves,  but  also  that  we  may 
be  able  to  please  others.  How  few  there  are  who  can  at  ran- 
dom take  up  a  newspaper,  a  magazine,  a  volume  of  poems, 
a  biographical  sketch,  or  a  narrative  of  travels,  and  read 
each  equally  well  to  their  friends  or  visitors  at  the  home 
fireside!  Fireside  readincr  has  been  too  much  neo:lected 
in  our  efforts  to  make  elocutionists  and  dramatic  readers. 

Silent  reading  is  important.     Indeed,  it  should  be  the 


72  METHODS    OF   TEACIIIXG. 

niain  purpose  in  teaching  reading  to  train  the  pupils  to 
think  and  gather  everything  possible  from  tho  printed 
page.  "Systematic  reading,"  says  a  prominent  elocu- 
tionist, Russell,  "  is  a  valued  means  for  cultivating  re- 
flective habits  of  mind,  which  is  study,  not  perusal — ■ 
reading  which  is  attentively  done,  carefully  reviewed, 
exactly  recorded,  or  orally  recounted." 

Much  time  should  be  devoted  by  the  pupil  to  reading 
solely  for  the  sake  of  reading.  It  -would  be  wise  to 
place  in  the  hands  of  pupils  choice  stories,  books  on 
biography,  interesting  history,  anecdotes,  travels,  and 
even  fiction,  with  the  double  purpose  of  giving  them 
enjoyment  and  creating  a  taste  for  reading.  This  would 
also  give  an  impetus  to  fireside  reading,  and  create  a 
desire  for  reading  such  literature  as  would  prove  not 
only  interesting,  but  also  valuable.  Indeed,  most  of  the 
censurable  habits  into  which  children  unconsciously  fall 
while  learning  to  read  at  school,  such  as  monotone  and 
drawl,  mio-ht  be  entirely  avoided  if  the  habit  of  silent 
readino-  were  more  liberally  encouraged  at  home. 

II.  Methods  for  Beginners. 

The  subject  of  reading  may  properly  be  divided  into 
Primarv  Readins  and  Advanced  Readinsr,  the  latter 
usually  known  as  Elocution. 

In  the  teaching  of  reading  to  beginners  pronunciation 
and  articulation  are  important  elements  to  be  consid- 
ered; but  the  great  mistake  v.hich  has  characterized,  and 
-which  does  characterize,  most  of  our  schools,  even  to- 
day, is  the  teaching  of  pronunciation  for  reading  proper. 
It  must  be  remembered  that  pronunciation  is  but  an  ele- 
ment of  reading,  and  not  reading  itself.     When  pupils, 


READIXG.  ( 6 

therefore,  pronounce  the  Avords  of  tlie  lesson  witiiout  giv- 
ing proper  expression,  they  do  not  read,  any  more  than 
Avhen  they  pronounce  the  words  in  the  columns  of  a 
spelling-book ;  and  yet  it  would  be  safe  to  say  that  this 
is  called  readincj  in  nine-tenths  of  the  schools  of  Amcr- 
ica  to-day.     It  is  simply  pronunciation. 

Care  must  be  taken  to  adajit  the  sentiment  and  diffi- 
culties in  all  books  on  reading  to  the  capacity  of  the 
pupils  to  be  taught.  It  is  the  failure  to  do  this  that  has 
so  often  led  the  pupil  to  fall  back  on  the  pronunciation 
of  words  alone  as  being  true  reading.  It  is  quite  as 
easy  for  the  pupil  to  read  or  say  naturally,  "  This  is  ray 
liorse,"  or  "  1  have  a  little  kitten,"  as  it  is  to  read,  '*'  I 
am  up,"  ''  We  go  up,"  "  Up  we  go,"  and  similar  absurd- 
ities, besides  being  a  great  deal  more  natural  and  more 
sensible.  The  child  learns  to  recognize  horses,  cows,  etc. 
quite  as  readily  as  it  recognizes  gnats,  mosquitoes,  or  other 
insects.  It  is  not  the- size  of  the  word,  any  more  than  it 
is  the  size  of  the  animal,  that  makes  its  form  familiar. 

xso  one  doubts  or  questions  the  importance  of  being 
able  to  read  well  either  orally  or  silently,  but  to  secure 
this  result  the  first  efforts  must  be  put  forth  in  the  direc- 
tion of  having  the  child  read  intelligently;  and  to  secure 
tliis  intellifrent  readino;  must  be  at  first  the  chief  work  of 
the  teacher.  lutellio-ent  reading  leads  to  intelliijible  and 
expressive  reading,  and  it  should  begin  with  the  first  sen- 
tence the  child  attempts  to  express. 

There  is  no  o-ood  reason  whv  a  child  should  ever  be 
permitted  to  drawl  a  sentence  or  read  it  in  monotone,  any 
more  than  there  is  for  his  drawling  out  the  words  in  his 
conversation,  however  animated  it  ought  to  be.  Here  is 
the  first  skirmish,  and,  this  once  having  been  won,  the 


74  METHODS  OF  TEACHING. 

batlle  is  easily  fought  at  all  other  points.  More  than 
three-fourths  of  the  teacher's  work  in  the  reading-class 
consists  in  a  continuous  struggle  to  correct  a  habit  which 
the  pupil  ought  never  to  have  been  permitted  to  contract. 


In  the  beginning- steps  of  teaching  a  child  to  read  a 
number  of  methods  have  been  devised  to  enable  him  to 
call  the  words  of  a  sentence.  The  most  important  of  these 
are  known,  rcs^icctively,  as — 

1.  The  Alphabetic  Method ; 

2.  The  Word-Building  Method ; 

3.  The  Word  Method ; 

4.  The  Object  Method ; 

5.  The  Phonic  Method ; 
C.  The  Phonetic  Method; 

7.  The  Sentence  Method ; 

8.  The  Group  Method. 

1.  The  Alphabetic  Method. 

By  this  method,  which  was  formerly  in  general  use, 
and  which  is  much  used  even  yet,  the  pupil  is  taught 
first  the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  either  wholly  or  in  part. 
When  he  is  familiar  with  these,  he  is  made  to  synthetize 
words  by  naming  the  letters  of  which  the  words  are  com- 
posed, or,  as  it  was  formerly  termed,  "spell  on  the  book," 
and  then  pronounce  the  combination.  But  little  if  any 
attention  is  paid  in  this  method  to  the  meaning  of 
words. 

One  of  the  chief  objections  to  the  method  is,  that  the 
child  is  taught  words  instead  of  ideas.  In  this  respect 
the  rule  that  the  child  should  begin  with  intelligent  read- 


REIADINO.  iO 

Ing  is  vio'i.ital.  The  pupil  begins  to  read  without  un- 
derstanding what  he  reads,  and  is  therefore  unable  to 
express  himself  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be  understood 
by  others. 

A  second  objection  is,  that  the  pupil  by  this  method  at- 
tempts to  read  and  spell  at  the  same  time,  and  thus  does 
neither  well.  Indeed,  his  attention  is  often  distracted  from 
the  sentiment  to  be  expressed  while  he  is  attempting  to 
decipher  a  word  by  '^spelling  it  out,"  and  thus  he  falls 
naturally  into  a  drawling  tone,  holding  on  to  one  word 
until  he  is  sure  of  the  next. 

2.  The  Word-Building  Method. 

The  AVord-Buildincr  Method  is  a  modification  of  the 
Ali)habetic  Method.  It  begins  with  a  few  letters  of  tiie 
alphabet,  a,  i,  o,  and  adds  to  these  other  letters  to  form 
words.  Thus,  to  the  letter  o  is  added  7i,and  the  child  is 
taught  that  the  two  lettere  form  the  word  on;  to  this  is 
added  e,  and  the  child  is  taught  that  the  new  product  is 
the  word  one;  thus  also  is  added  t  to  make  tone,  and  s  to 
make  stone.  The  method  was  in  use  in  Europe  about 
half  a  century  ago,  and  it  was  used  also  in  this  country 
to  a  liniited  extent  for  some  time. 

It  is  a  i)leasant  exercise  for  tlie  purpose  of  giving 
variety  to  the  school- work,  but  inasmuch  as  our  lan- 
guage is  not  built  up  by  individual  lettei-s,  but  ratiier 
bv  words,  it  is  apt  to  lead  the  pupil  into  etymological 
errors  which  may  require  years  of  the  best  teaching  to 
eft'licate.  On  is  not  formed  from  o,  nor  one  from  on, 
nor  */)ne  from  one.  The  system,  to  say  the  best  of  it, 
is  one  that  ought  to  be  pursued  only  as  an  occasional 
exercise. 


76  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

3.  TI18  Word  Method. 

TheAVoid  LEethod  begins  by  teaching  words  as  wholes, 
just  as  children  learn  to  recognize  objects  as  wholes  rather 
than  by  noticing  the  individual  parts  of  which  they  are 
composed.  Among  the  first  to  use  this  method  in  this 
country  -was  Professor  Webb,  after  whom  it  was  for  a 
time  named  "the  Webb  Method."  In  England  it  is 
generally  known  as  the  ''Look-and-Say  Method,"  also  as 
the  method  of  "Reading  without  Spelling."  Among  the 
first  to  advocate  this  method  was  a  French  philosopher, 
Jactotct,  who  lived  from  1770  to  1840. 

This  method  teaches  words  as  the  representatives  of 
things,  actions,  relations,  etc.  It  does  not  teach  the 
alphabet  at  all,  but  leaves  the  pupils  to  learn  the  names 
of  the  letters  after  they  have  acquired  a  knowledge  of 
a  sufficient  number  of  word-forms  to  begin  reading. 
AVhen  properly  used,  the  Word  Method  begins  with  the 
oral  or  spoken  M'ord,  and  then  introduces  to  the  pupil 
the  printed  or  written  form  which  represents  it.  The 
correct  principle  is — first  the  idea,  then  the  spoken  word, 
and  following  this  the  printed  or  written  form. 

The  Word  Method  is  one  of  the  most  valuable,  and  is 
the  method  mainly  used  by  progressive  teachers.  It  is 
closely  related  to  what  may  be  denominated  the  Object 
Method,  which  is  here  given  more  in  detail. 

4.  The  Object  Method. 

This  method,  as  has  been  said,  is  similar  in  many  re- 
spects to  the  Word  Method.  It,  however,  begins  far- 
ther back  than  the  Word  Method.  It  begins  not  with  the 
word,  but  with  the  object  itself.  The  attention  of  the 
pupils  is  directed  to  some   object  with  which  they  are 


READING.  77 

familiar.  The  object  is  shown  to  the  class,  or,  in  the 
absence  of  the  object,  a  picture  of  it.  The  name  is  given 
by  the  pupils,  and  then  this  name  is  both  printed  and 
■written  on  the  blackboard  or  pointed  out  on  a  card. 
The  pupil  is  then  taught  to  distinguish  the  word  from 
the  picture.  By  some  teachers  the  child  is  taught  to 
distinguish  between  the  object  and  the  picture,  but  this 
is  wholly  unnecessary  to  correct  teaching.  Besides, 
there  are  but  few  suitable  objects,  particularly  of  the 
animal  kind,  which  the  teacher  can  with  safety  bring 
into  the  school-room  without  attracting  more  attention 
than  he  would  find  desirable. 

After  the  child  has  learned  to  associate  the  word-form 
with  the  picture,  the  manner  of  teaching  by  the  Object 
INIethod  does  not  differ  essentially  from  that  of  the  Word 
Method. 

The  chief  value  of  the  Object  Method  lies  in  the  fact 
that  it  is  the  natural  method,  and  it  best  harmonizes  with 
the  law  of  mental  development.  The  child,  seeing  the 
object,  has  first  the  idea,  then  the  spoken  name,  and  lastly 
it  becomes  familiar  with  the  printed  and  the  written  name, 
thus  proceeding  regularly  from  the  known  to  the  un- 
known in  its  acquisition  of  knowledge.  Words  by  this 
method  are  taught  as  the  repreientatives  of  the  objects 
and  their  spoken  names. 

After  the  pupils  have  become  familiar  with  a  few 
word-forms  as  learned  by  the  Object  ]Method,  they  may 
be  required  to  reproduce  these,  and  at  the  same  time 
analyze  the  words  into  the  letters  of  which  they  arc 
composed.  This  will  be  found  a  valuable  exercise  in 
fixino-  the  form  of  the  word  in  the  mind  of  the  child. 

To  illustrate  :  Take  the  word  hat.     After  the  children 


78  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

have  been  tanglit  to  distinguish  the  form  as  placed  on  the 
blackboard  by  the  teacher,  let  them  select  the  same  word 
on  a  reading-chart,  or  from  the  reading-bcnk,  or  from 
among  several  words  ])laced  on  the  blackboard ;  then  let 
them  proceed  to  copy  the  word  on  their  slates,  the  teacher 
first  having  erased  from  the  board  all  other  words  except 
this  one.  The  children  may  even  be  permitted  to  go  to 
the  blackboard  and  with  crayon  write  or  print  the  word  a 
number  of  times  on  the  board.  They  enjoy  this  part  of 
the  work,  and  unless  they  become  noisy  there  seems  to  be 
no  good  reason  why  they  should  not  be  indulged  in  it, 
particularly  as  a  reward  for  good  conduct. 

A  second  step  in  this  method  is  that  suggested  above, 
of  having  the  pupils  analyze  the  word  into  the  letters 
of  which  it  is  composed.  Thus,  in  the  word  hat;  let  it 
be  printed  somewhat  as  follows,  first  as  a  whole  and 
then  with  the  letters  separated : 

hat 
hat 
Also  Avritten,  as  follows : 

Let  the  pupil  have  exercise  in  both  the  printing  and  the 
writing  of  the  word,  but  at  the  earliest  possible  moment 
dis])ense  with  the  printing  entirely  as  an  exercise,  except 
for  the  purpose  of  training  him  to  learn  to  recognize  read- 
ily the  printed  form.  Pupils  will  make  much  more  rapid 
progress  if  taught  early  to  write  their  lessons  instead  of 
printing  them  on  the  slate,  and  much  valuable  time  will 
also  be  saved. 


READING.  79 

As  a  third  step  the  pupil  may  be  readily  taught  the 
sounds  which  compose  the  words.  The  easiest  plan  to 
reach  this  result  is  to  have  him  pronounce  the  word  in 
imitation  of  the  teacher,  as  heard  in  ordinary  conversa- 
tion or  good  reading,  then  pronounce  it  more  slowly,  still 
imitating  the  teacher's  pronunciation,  and  finally  separate 
the  sounds  from  one  another,  making  each  one  distinct 
when  uttered.  The  teacher  is  of  course  the  guide,  and 
the  pu])il  continues  to  imitate  until  he  is  able  to  deal 
with  words  without  the  teacher's  help,  and  name  both 
the  letters  and  the  sounds  of  which  a  word  is  composed, 
or  until  he  is  able  to  spell  the  word  both  literally  and 
phonically. 

5.  The  Phonic  Method. 

This  method  consists  chiefly  in  teaching  children  the 
elementary  sounds  of  the  language,  rather  than  their 
names,  and  then  having  the  children  use  these  sounds 
in  learning  to  read.  Thus,  in  teaching  the  word  ma7i, 
the  child  is  taught  not  the  letters  m,  a,  n,  but  the  sounds 
represented  by  these  letters. 

The  most  serious  objection  to  this  method  lies  in  the 
fact  that  the  English  language  has  only  twenty-six  let- 
ters, while  it  lias  fully  forty  elementary  sounds.  The 
child  has  no  sooner  learned  that  a  has  a  short  sound, 
as  in  at,  than  he  meets  it  with  a  long  sound,  as  in  ate; 
and  he  learns  soon  thereafter  that  it  has  a  still  different 
fround  in  far,  and  yet  another  in  fall,  while  in  the  word 
fare  the  sound  differs  from  the  other  four.  The  method 
is  imi)racticiible  in  any  language  where  the  number  of 
elementary  sounds  is  so  much  greater  than  the  number 
of  characters  to  represent  them ;  it  is  impracticable  also 


80  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

wlicre  the  same  sound  is  represented  by  several  characters 
or  combinations,  and  where  the  use  of  silent  letters  is  one 
of  the  peculiarities  of  the  language. 

Another  defect  of  the  Phonic  Method  lies  in  the  fact 
that  it  is  unphilosophical,  because  it  begins  with  individ- 
ual sounds,  which  the  child  can  know  onlv  bv  hearing 
the  teacher  articulate  them,  and  proceeds  to  the  words 
of  which  these  sounds  are  elements.  It  begins  vrith  the 
unknown  and  proceeds  to  the  known,  thus  violating  one 
of  tlie  most  imjiortant  educational  principles. 

G.  The  Phonetic  Method. 

This  method  differs  from  the  Phonic  Method  in  requir- 
ing a  special  character  to  represent  each  sound.  It  uses  the 
present  alphabet  to  designate  twenty-six  of  the  sounds, 
a  variable  letter  always  representing  that  sound  of  the 
letter  most  frequently  used,  and  provides  slight  modifi- 
cations of  the  letter-forms  to  represent  the  other  sounds. 
Thus,  all  sounds  of  a  except  the  short  sound  are  by  this 
system  represented  by  modifications  of  the  character  a. 

In  print  the  silent  letters  appear  in  very  light,  hair- 
line type,  and  those  letters  which  are  sounded  in  heavier 
type. 

A  modification  of  the  Phonetic  Method  is  that  indica- 
ted by  })lacing  the  macron  (-),  the  breve  {y),  and  other 
diacritical  marks  with  the  letters  as  found  in  the  standard 
dictionaries. 

Another  modification  of  the  Phonetic  Method  is  that 
known  as  the  Phonotypic  Method,  which  consists  in  pro- 
viding a  special  character  for  each  sound  of  the  language, 
The  pupil's  alphabet  is  made  to  consist  of  forty  or  more 
cl^racters  iui^tcad  of  twenty-six. 


READING.  81 

It  may  be  said  of  the  Phonetic  Method  that,  while  it 
13  more  rational  than  the  Phonic,  it  still  is  open  to  serious 
objections,  and  can  be  used  effectively  only  in  a  language 
whose  whole  literature  is  printed  in  the  characters  which 
the  child  is  taught  at  school.  It  simply  postpones  for  a 
time  the  difficulties  which  the  child  must  overcome  in 
learning  to  read. 

7.  The  Sentence  Method. 

This  method  begins  with  sentences  rather  than  letters 
or  words.  The  thought  is  expressed  first  orally,  and  then 
the  printed  or  written  expression  is  presented  and  taught. 
The  method  is  based  on  the  theory  that  the  sentence  is  the 
unit  of  language ;  in  other  words,  that  we  think  in  sen- 
tences rather  than  in  words,  and  that  we  ought  therefore 
to  read  in  sentences  rather  than  in  words. 

It  is  held  by  the  advocates  of  this  method  that  the 
eye  always  keeps  in  advance  of  the  voice,  and  that  we 
fchape  our  expression  by  the  general  thought  rather  than 
by  the  individual  words  of  the  ])aragra])h.  It  is  claimed 
also  that  pupils  who  learn  to  read  by  this  method  learn 
to  express  themselves  more  naturally. 

The  opponents  of  this  method  urge  the  following 
objections : 

1.  That  the  word,  and  not  the  sentence,  is  the  unit  of 
language. 

2.  That  jHipils  who  learn  by  this  method  soon  begin 
to  recognize  the  separate  words,  and  consequently  read 
by  M'ords  rather  than  by  sentences. 

3.  That  it  is  impossible  to  teach  all,  or  even  a  large 
number,  of  sentences  in  this  way,  and  consequently  the 
pupil  must,  after  all,  ultimately  learn  to  read  b}-  words. 


82  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

8.  The  Group  Method. 

The  Group  Method  is  based  on  the  Object  Method  and 
the  "Word  Method  combined.  AVhile  it  is  true  that  the 
word  is  the  unit  of  language,  the  pupil  who  reads  wonls 
as  words,  without  considering  tlieir  relations  to  other 
VN'ords,  invariably  falls  into  the  monotonous  drawl  so 
characteristic  of  beginners. 

The  Group  Method  takes  the  pupils  from  the  point  to 
which  the  Object  and  the  Word  Method  have  carried 
them,  and  teaches  them  to  read  words  in  combinations 
according  to  their  relations.  Thus,  in  reading  the  ex- 
pression "a  cat,"  the  child  is  not  permitted  to  give  as 
much  force  to  the  word  a  as  to  the  word  cat;  he  rather 
combines  the  two  words  as  if  they  constituted  but  one, 
of  which  the  syllable  cat  receives  the  accent. 

This  same  principle  may  be  further  illustrated  by  fol- 
lowiuiT  out  the  natural  grammatical  divisions  of  the  sen- 
tence.  Thus,  the  sentences  below  naturally  divide  in 
expressive  reading  into  subject,  predicate,  and  modifiers, 
and  are  read  with  short  natural  pauses  between,  as  indi- 
cated : 

The  hoy  has  gone. 

I  have  found  my  Jcni/e. 

The  Utile  bird  sang  from  her  nest 

in  the  tree. 

You  .   have  seen  the  hoy  corning 

to  school  very  late. 

Make  an  unnatural  or  \ingrammatical  division  of 
these  sentences  and  attempt  to  read  them  thus,  and  the 
importance  of  group-reading  will  appear  at  once.     Thus, 


READIXO.  83 

The  boy  lias  gone. 

I  lia\"e  found  my  knife. 

The  little  bird  sanir  from  her  nest 

in  the  tree. 

You  have  seen  the  boy  coming  to 

school  very  late. 

The  Group  Method  trains  ]>npils  to  read  M'ords  in 
groups  as  they  are  used  in  conversation  ;  and  no  method 
is  more  eifective  in  breaking  up  monotone  and  giving 
proper  expression,  which,  after  all,  is  quite  as  important 
as  distinct  articulation  and  correct  jH'onunciation.  All 
other  methods  aim  primarily  at  teaching  pronunciation, 
or  the  calling  of  M'ords,  as  distinct  from  reading  proper; 
and  every  other  metlrod,  therefore,  to  be  of  any  value 
must  be  associated  with  the  Group  Method,  whose  office 
it  is  to  develop  expression  and  train  pupils  not  to  call 
words  onlv,  but  to  read  in  the  truest  and  best  sense  of 
the  term. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  methods  for  which  the 
greatest  merit  is  claimed  are  the  Object  Method,  the 
Word  Method,  and  the  Group  Method.  It  may  be 
said  here,  also,  that  the  Alphabetic  Method  is  not  with- 
out some  merit,  and  that,  after  all,  it  will  be  found  that 
a  large  part  of  the  teaching  of  those  wlio  are  most  suc- 
cessful comes  back  to  the  alphabet  finally  as  the  ground- 
work on  which  to  build. 

The  argument  which  holds  good  with  reference  to  the 
Sentence  Method  is  equally  good  with  reference  to  the 
Word  Method.  We  cannot  learn  many  sentences,  it  is 
said,  as  wholes,  but  we  learn  the  words  instead ;  nor 
can  we  learn  a  large  number  of  words  as  wholes  except 


84  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

by  long  experience.  In  all  our  teaching,  therefore,  we  find 
it  convenient,  after  having  taught  a  vocabulary  of  from 
sixty  to  a  hundred  words,  to  analyze  these  words  into  the 
letters  of  which  they  are  composed;  and  practically  we 
teach  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  at  some  time,  whatever 
may  be  our  theory  or  however  it  may  contradict  our 
practice. 

AVe  do  teach  the  alphabet,  and  our  pupils,  like  our- 
selves, whenever  they  meet  a  word  new  to  them,  make 
an  effort  to  pronounce  it  from  their  knowledge  of  the 
letters  of  which  it  is  composed  and  the  powers  Avhich 
those  letters  have  under  various  forms  of  combination. 
If  that  knowledge  be  defective,  the  pronunciation  may 
be  incorrect,  but  it  will  be  correct  or  approach  correct- 
ness according  to  our  knowledge  of  the  powers  of  the 
letters.  Were  this  not  the  case,  our  knowledge  of  pro- 
nunciation must  end  with  the  reading-lesson  given  by 
the  teacher,  ami  our  progress  witli  our  school-days. 

Pupils  learn  new  words  by  their  analogy  of  form.  Let 
the  teacher,  after  having  given  an  interesting  lesson  on 
the  word  hat,  and  placed  the  word  on  the  blackboard, 
write  a  number  of  words  of  similar  form  iu  the  same 
column  or  iu  several  columns,  as  follows : 


bat 

hat 

rat 

cat 

mat 

sat 

fat 

pat 

vat 

Tlic  pupils  will  readily  learn  to  pronounce  the  whole  of 
them  in  a  very  short  time  if  they  know  the  letters  of  the 
alphabet.  They  may  miss  the  word  cat  and  call  it  sat^ 
because  the  name  of  the  latter  may  mislead  them,  but 
they  will  not  mispronounce  the  others  if  the  teacher  is 


READING .  85 

careful  to  call  tlieir  attention  to  the  shape  of  the  mouth 
while  pronouncing  the  first  letter  of  the  word.  Thus,  by 
a  sinole  lesson  thev  may  learn  eidit  or  nine  words,  where 
by  the  Word  Method  alone  it  would  require  a  much  longer 
time. 

A  great  number  of  words  may  be  giycu  in  this  same 
way  in  which  it  is  necessary  to  make  only  a  slio;ht  change 
in  the  form  of  each  word.     The  following  will  serve  as 


an  example : 

get 

bin 

bit 

den 

bun 

cot 

let 

din 

fit 

hen 

dun 

dot 

met 

fin 

hit 

men 

fun 

got 

net 

kin 

lit 

pen 

gun 

liot 

pet 

pin 

mit 

ten 

])un 

lot 

set 

sin 

sit 

fen 

run 

not 

M-et 

tin 

pit 

wen 

sun 

rot 

An  excellent  exercise  is  that  of  giving  the  pupils  in 
class  the  termination,  and  allowing  them  to  form  tlie 
words ;  thus,  give  them  such  termiuations  as  an,  at,  on, 
ot,  etc.,  and  let  them  form  words  by  prefixing  various 
letters.  Some  of  them  v.ill  write  many  more  words  than 
others,  but  all  will  be  benefited  by  the  exercise. 

By  this  method  of  teaching,  the  alphabet,  pronuncia- 
tion, and  elementary  reading  are  all  closely  associated, 
and  it  would  be  difficult  to  separate  the  processes,  even 
if  it  were  desirable. 

Suggestions  on  Teaching   Primary  Reading. 

The  followintr  sugcrestions  will  be  of  value  to  tJie 
teacher,  whatever  may  be  the  method  he  pursues  in 
teach  in  cr  Primarv  Reading: 


86  METHODS   OF    TEACHING. 

1.  Pronouncing  at  Sight. — Whatever  metho.l  is  pur- 
sued, it  is  a  matter  of  great  importance  that  before  the 
pupil  attempts  to  read  aloud  he  should  be  able  to  pro- 
nounce every  word  in  the  sentence.  This  is  necessary 
in  order  that  he  may  give  his  entire  attention  to  the 
matter  of  expression,  and  read  naturally  ;  and  it  can 
be  best  accomplished  by  the  teacher's  giving  a  drill  on 
the  proiuuiciation  of  the  words  in  the  sentence  before 
the  child  is  permitted  to  attempt  to  give  oral  expression 
to  the  sentiment. 

2.  Reading  in  Natural  Tones. — Require  your  pupils  to 
read  in  natural  tones,  such  as  they  are  accustomed  to  use 
in  conversation.  The  fault  thev  will  most  likelv  com- 
mit  is  that  of  reading  either  on  a  high,  unnatural  key 
or  in  tones  so  low  that  but  few  in  the  class  can  catch 
the  sound  distinctly. 

3.  Correct  Reading. — See  that  pupils  read  correctly 
and  with  proper  expression  from  the  beginning.  Tiie 
first  lessons  are  the  most  important,  because  then  the 
habits  are  formed  which  will  make  the  pupil  either  a 
pleasing  or  a  slovenly  reader  for  much  of  his  school- 
life. 

4.  Distinct  Articulation. — Insist  on  distinct  articula- 
tion. When  the  vocal  organs  are  yet  flexible  is  the 
time  to  G:ive  drill  in  the  sounds  of  the  lano;ua2:o.  Fre- 
quent  drills  on  the  articulation  of  the  elementary  sounds, 
and  on  combinations  of  these  sounds,  will  2)rove  specially 
valuable. 

5.  Graceful  Posture. — See  that  the  ])osture  of  your 
pupils  Mhile  reading  is  graceful.  They  should  stand 
erect,  and  in  holding  a  book  hold  it  so  that  those  to 
whom  they  read  can  see  the  movement  of  the  reader's 


EEADING.  87 

lips.  Tlie  position  of  the  pupil  should  be  entirely  free 
and  unrestrained.  Tlio  book  should  be  held  in  the  left 
hand,  and  the  right  hand  be  kept  free  to  turn  the  leaves 
or  make  o-cstures  if  neccssarv. 

6.  Train  to  Catch  the  Thought. — It  is  important  for 
pupils  to  catch  the  thought  of  the  author,  in  order  that 
they  may  express  it  properly  when  reading.  Pupils 
may  frequently  be  trained  to  tiiink  more  clearly  by  a 
series  of  judicious  questions  })ut  by  the  teacher.  He 
may  awaken  thought  also  by  means  of  a  conversation 
with  them  on  the  subject  and  contents  of  the  lesson, 
and  sometimes  by  reading  their  lesson  to  them  in  a 
natural  tone  and  with  correct  emi)hasis  and  inflection. 

7.  Make  Haste  Slowly. — The  teacher  must  not  become 
discouraged  because  the  pupils  seem  to  make  but  slow 
progress.  At  best,  it  is  tedious  work  to  teach  a  child 
to  read,  but  a  child  well  taught  during  the  first  year 
of  its  school-career  is  well  taught  for  life,  and  the 
subsequent  teaching  is  comparatively  easy.  The  teacher 
should  see  that  correct  habits  are  formed  and  that  the 
child  reads  understanding! y,  even  though  the  progress 
be  slow  at  first.  If  the  foundation  be  well  laid,  the 
superstructure  will  be  all  the  more  substantial. 

8.  The  First  Steps. — An  interesting  exercise,  and  also 
a  valuable  one,  is  that  of  having  pupils  fill  blanks  as  the 
teacher  supplies  a  part  of  each  sentence ;  thus,  the  teacher 
may  write  a  single  word,  say  the  predicate  of  a  sentence, 
as  play,  and  request  the  pupils  to  tell  what  play.  The 
answers  may  be  written  on  the  board,  the  exercise  stand- 
ing somewhat  as  follows: 

Boys  play. 
Girls  play. 


o 


88  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

Lambs  piny. 
Dogs  play. 
Etc.,  etc. 

Tlie  pupils  should  be  required  to  read  each  of  these, 
when  it  will  be  found  that  they  naturally  emphasize 
the  newly-introduced  word.  The  exercise  may  now 
be  changed  so  that  they  write  predicates  instead  of 
subjects;  and  in  reading  them  it  will  be  found  that 
they  now  emphasize  the  predicate  as  the  new  word 
introduced. 

9.  Writing  Lessons  on  Slate. — From  the  very  beginning 
pupils  should  be  required  to  copy  at  least  a  portion  of 
their  reading-lessons  on  their  slates.  Several  benefits 
arise  from  this  practice :  the  form  of  the  word  and  the 
letters  of  which  it  is  composed  are  impressed  on  the 
mind  of  the  pupil;  he  receives  muscular  training  of 
the  hand ;  he  learns  to  some  extent  the  use  of  capital 
letters  and  punctuation-marks  ;  and  the  exercise  secures 
attention  to  the  work. 

Should  the  pupil  not  be  able  to  write  at  first,  he  may 
print  the  lessons  on  his  slate,  but  he  should  write  as 
soon  as  possible,  and  at  least  one  paragraph  should  be 
copied  by  him  from  every  lesson.  It  would  be  better  to 
copy  the  lessons  in  the  First  and  the  Second  Reader  in 
full. 

10.  Mispronounced  Words. — All  words  mispronounced 
during  the  lesson  should  be  written  on  the  blackboard, 
where  they  may  be  seen  by  the  class.  These  should  be 
copied  by  the  pupils  on  their  slates,  and  the  proper  pro- 
nunciation of  them  be  learned  for  the  next  recitation. 
The  teacher  should  also  place  before  the  pupils  a  list  of 
words  most  frequently  mispronounced,  and  the  pupils 


READING.  89 

fchould   have  frequent  drills  on  the  proper    pronuncia- 
tion of  these  words. 

11.  Incorporating  Words. — It  is  an  excellent  practice 
to  have  pupils  substitute  words  in  sentences.  This 
gives  them  a  knowledge  of  synonyms,  and  at  the  same 
time  shows  that  they  understand  Avliat  they  are  reading. 
It  is  also  a  good  plan  to  have  them  take  Avords  of  the 
reading-lesson  as  selected  by  the  teacher  and  incor- 
])orate  them  in  sentences  of  their  own  construction. 
They  will  thus  learn  the  use  of  words  much  more 
readilv  than  bv  the  formal  definition. 

12.  Familiar  Words. — All  lessons  at  first  should  con- 
tain only  familiar  words,  such  as  the  pupil  is  likely  to 
have  as  a  part  of  his  own  vocabulary,  or  such,  at  least, 
as  he  knows  the  meaning  of,  though  he  may  not  have 
used  them  in  his  own  speech.  Primary  books  should  be 
in  child-lanffuage  if  desiirned  for  the  use  of  children. 

13.  Definitions. — Pupils  should  be  permitted  to  define 
words  i]i  their  own  terms.  As  heretofore  suggested,  they 
may  sometimes  do  this  by  substituting  another  word.  The 
teacher  should  define  no  word  for  the  pupil  if  the  latter 
is  able  to  define  it  for  himself,  and  if  the  child  is  not  able 
to  give  a  definition,  its  substitution  of  a  word  of  nearly 
the  same  meanino-  is  better  than  a  formal  definition  com- 
mitted  but  not  understood. 

14.  A  Combuiation  of  Methods. — In  teaching  beginners 
a  combination  of  methods  is  desirable.  The  Object 
Method,  the  Word  jNIethod,  the  Alphabetic  Method,  the 
Group  Method, — all  or  a  combination  of  all  should  be 
used.  After  learning  a  number  of  words  by  the  Object 
Method,  the  methods  practically  combine  and  intermin- 
gle, and  the  difference  is  so  slight  and  of  so  little  im» 


90  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

portance  tliat  no  sensible  teacher  will  make  a  hobby  of 
any  one  of  them. 

15.  The  Chart. — A  chart  in  connection  with  the  First 
R&'uler  and  the  blackboard  will  be  very  convenient. 
Both  chart  and  blackboard  are  useful.  If  no  chart  is 
at  hand,  the  teacher  may  write  or  print  both  the  words 
and  the  letters  on  the  blackboard,  and  have  the  pupils 
co})y  from  his  work. 

16.  Short  Lessons. — Lessons  for  beginners  should  be 
very  short.  It  is  better  that  the  pupils  should  remember 
a  verv  few  words,  and  be  able  to  call  them  at  sight  and 
read  them  in  sentences,  than  stumble  over  the  words  of 
a  lesson  twice  as  great  in  length. 

17.  Single  Words. — As  an  occasional  exercise  for  the 
purpose  of  cultivating  attention  and  training  the  pupils 
to  pronounce  at  sight,  it  is  vakiable  to  have  pupils  in 
class  read  in  turn  sometimes  but  a  single  word,  then  also 
but  a  single  line. 

18.  Reading  for  Pupils. — It  is  a  good  plan  for  the 
teacher  occasionally  to  read  the  lesson  through  for  his 
pupils  before  they  attempt  to  read,  particularly  if  the 
lesson  be  read  to  them  before  they  begin  to  study  it.  In 
this  way  they  are  enabled  to  get  at  the  sense  and  senti- 
ment of  the  selection  without  wasting  time  unnecessarily 
in  trying  to  comprehend  it. 

19.  Imitative  Reading. — An  effective  means  of  break- 
ing up  monotonous  or  other  faulty  reading  at  times  is  for 
the  teacher,  if  possible,  to  imitate  the  fault.  It  is  not 
wise,  however,  for  him  to  imitate  the  reading  of  any 
particular  pu])il,  for  this  may  wound  the  feelings  of  the 
child  and  do  very  much  more  harm  than  good.  It  is 
better  to  imitate  faulty  reading  in  general  before  the 


KEADING.  91 

recitation  begins.  The  pupils  will  not  thus  take  offense, 
and  yet  they  will  make  an  effort  to  avoid  the  fault  which 
the  teacher  imitates. 

20.  Encourage  rather  than  Criticise. — The  teacher 
should  rarely  find  fault  with  a  pupil's  efforts  to  read. 
He  should  rather  encourage  the  child,  and  Avlieu  correc- 
tions are  made  they  should  be  such  as  will  benefit  the 
reader.  With  many  the  'mispronunciation  of  a  word 
is  a  much  greater  offense  than  the  most  incorrect  form 
or  manner  of   expression. 

21.  Interruptions. — Permit  no  interruptions  while  any 
one  is  attempting  to  read.  ■  The  reader's  attention  sliould 
not  be  distracted  from  what  he  is  attempting  to  read,  by 
pupils  snapping  their  fingers  or  raising  the  hands.  Any 
criticism  that  may  be  desirable  should  be  reserved  until 
he  has  taken  his  seat. 

22.  Asking  Questions. — The  teacher  should  ask  ques- 
tions to  lead  the  beginner  to  emphasize  properly.  Thus, 
in  the  sentence,  TJiat  little  boy  writes  very  rapidly,  a  series 
of  questions  like  the  following  will  lead  the  child  to 
shift  the  emphasis  naturally  from  one  word  to  another 
in  obedience  to  the  teacher's  wishes :  Who  writes  very 
rapidly?  Which  boy  writes  very  rajiidly  ?  Which 
little  boy  writes  very  rapidly?  What  does  the  little 
boy  do  very  rapidly?  How  does  that  little  boy  write? 
How  rajiidly  does  that  little  boy  write  ?  A  similar  series 
cf  questions  may  be  used  with  other  sentences,  and  pupils 
be  thus  led  out  of  the  monotonous  stvle  of  readino;. 

23.  Interesting  Pupils. — One  of  the  most  effective  ways 
of  breaking  up  monotone  in  reading  is  by  creating  inter- 
est in  the  piece  to  be  read.  This  may  be  done  partlv  by 
asking  questions,  partly  by  holding  a  conversation  with 


92  METHODS    OF    TEACIIIXG. 

the  class  on  the  subject  of  the  lesson,  and  partly  by  judi- 
ciously selecting  such  exercises  to  be  read  as  are  strictly 
within  the  mental  grasp  of  the  child. 

24.  Reading  to  One  Anotlier. — It  is  an  excellent  plan  to 
have  all  the  pupils,  except  the  one  who  is  reading,  close 
their  books  and  then  give  close  attention  while  lie  reads. 
After  he  has  finished,  some  one  should  be  called  upon  to 
reproduce  from  memory  what  the  other  pujiil  read  from 
the  book.  This  plan  is  particularly  valuable  as  an  oc- 
casional exercise  in  ffivinir  culture  to  both  attenrion  and 
memory. 

25.  Occasional  Dialogues.— These  are  valuable  aids  in 
training  ihe  attention  of  pupils  and  securing  natural  ex- 
pression. Care  must  be  taken,  however,  that  the  language 
and  the  sentiment  are  adapted  to  the  pupil's  capacity.  The 
old  plan  of  reading  selections  from  the  dramas  of  Sheri- 
dan KnoM'les  and  Shakespeare  was  simply  ridiculous. 

26.  Silent  Reading. — Give  plenty  of  exercise  in  silent 
reading.  Indeed,  it  would  do  no  harm  to  permit  each  pu- 
pil to  look  over  his  paragra})h  a  short  time  before  calling 
on  him  to  read  aloud.  This  may  not  be  necessarv,  how- 
ever,  where  he  has  had  ample  time  to  prepare  his  lesson. 
Xearlv  all  of  our  reading  after  leaving  school  is  of  this 
character,  and  it  is  therefore  specially  important  that 
every  one  should  be  trained  to  glean  the  thought  from 
the  printed  page. 

27.  Too  Critical. — The  teacher  should  not  encourage 
slovenly  habits  in  reading  by  permitting  serious  errors 
to  pass  unnoticed  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  he  should  not 
be  too  critical.  The  omission  of  an  occasional  word  not 
absolutely  necessary  to  the  sense  is  not  so  serious  a  matter 
that  the  teacher  need  wound  the  feelings  of  the  pupil  by 


EEADIXa.  93 

calling  his  attention  to  it  openly.     AVIiat  the  child  needs 
is  encouragement,  and  not  censure,  to  make  it  do  well. 

28.  Attention  to  Errors. — Both  constant  and  patient  at- 
tention must  be  given  by  the  teacher  to  the  correction  of 
defective  articulation  and  pronunciation.  Children  will 
pronounce  as  they  hear  others  pronounce  at  home  and 
elsewhere,  however  incorrect  this  may  be,  and  all,  in 
their  liaste,  are  liable  to  articulate  more  or  less  indis- 
tinctly, clip  syllables,  or  run  sounds  together.  Much 
care  is  necessary  to  correct  these  faults. 

29.  Diacritical  Marks. — At  a  comparatively  early  age 
the  child  may  be  tanght  at  least  the  dictionary-marks 
for  the  lono;  and  the  short  vowehsouuds.  After  these 
are  known  the  teacher  should  explain  by  the  use  of  th^ 
blackboard  and  teach  each  of  the  other  marks,  being  care- 
ful not  to  liurry  his  pu]nls  too  much.  Pupils  should  thus 
be  taught  how  to  use  the  dictionary,  and  be  encouraged 
to  consult  it  whenever  in  doubt  as  to  the  pronunciation 
of  a  Mord. 

30.  Drill  on  the  Elementary  Sounds. — Pupils  learn  at 
a  verv  early  age  the  elementary  sounds  of  the  language. 
The  teacher  should  give  frequent  drills  on  these  sounds, 
both  singly  and  in  connection  with  words.  It  is  ]U'ob- 
ably  best  to  give  a  drill  on  the  words  first,  and  then  have 
pu])i]s  articulate  the  sounds  irrespective  of  the  words. 

Tlicse  drills  may  be  made  useful  also  in  giving  train- 
ing in  pitch,  by  having  pupils  first  give  the  pitch  in  such 
a  tone  as  the  ^.eacher  may  request,  then  in  a  higher  or  a, 
lower  tone,  changing  from  one  pitch  to  another.  The 
drills  may  be  made  useful  also  in  teaching  force,  move- 
ment, etc. 

A  drill  on  the  elementary  sounds  should  usually  be 


9-4  METHODS   OF   TEACHIXa. 

in  concert.  It  will  have  a  tendency  to  enconrage  the 
timid,  and  at  the  same  time  train  all  to  act  and  speak  iu 
harmony.  The  chief  benefits  of  the  drills  are  that  they 
give  flexibility  to  the  voice  and  train  the  pupils  to  dis- 
tinct and  correct  articulation. 

31.  Division  of  Lessons. — Do  not  make  the  mistake  of 
supposing  that  because  a  lesson  covers  a  certain  number 
of  paragra[)hs  or  pages  you  must  assign  all  of  it  for  a 
single  lesson.  Use  your  judgment.  Assign  such  quan- 
tity as  pupils  can  prepare  thoroughly.  A  few  lines  or  a 
single  paragraph  well  prepared  and  well  read  is  more 
beneficial  than  as  many  pages  taught  imperfectly  or 
glanced  over  hastily.     Every   teacher   must   determine 

•for  himself  how  much  his  pupils  can  do  well  and 
profitably. 

32.  Too  Much  Drill. — Xothing  tends  to  discourage 
pupils  more  than  a  constant  drill  on  the  same  lesson. 
Give  your  pupils  variety.  Rather  let  them  read  a  lesson 
but  moderately  well,  and  give  them  some  supplementary 
reading,  than  keep  them  drilling  on  a  lesson  until  they 
tire  of  it.  Many  teachers  in  their  anxiety  to  secure 
thoroughness  fall  into  this  error,  and  nauseate  their 
]Mi])ils  with  constant  and  senseless  repetition.  The 
child,  like  the  man,  delights  in  acquiring  new  ideas, 
in  fighting  new  battles,  and  in  testing  its  strength  iu 
overcomincr  new  difficulties. 

33.  Right  Habits  in  Reading. — The  most  valuable 
teachino-  of  readinoj  is  that  which  secures  correct  habits. 
The  children  must  in  the  reading-class  be  required  to 
speak  and  read  correctly,  but  it  is  equally  important  that 
they  speak  or  read  correctly  in  all  other  classes,  even  in 
the  giving  of  a  definition  in  geography,  the  spelling  of  a 


KEADING.  95 

word,  or  tlie  repetition  of  the  mu]ti])lic;ition  table.  Ivlglit 
habits  of  this  kind  formed  will  make  children  good  read- 
ers permanently. 

34.  Tlie  Eye  should  Anticipate  the  Voice. — Those  wl  ose 
readino;  has  the  best  effect  on  an  audience  are  thev  who 
are  able  to  look  the  hearers  in  the  eye  at  least  a  i)art  of 
the  time.  To  be  able  to  do  this,  the  reader  mus^t  bo 
trained  to  look  ahead,  taking  in  not  only  a  few  advance 
words,  but  sometimes  a  whole  sentence  at  a  glance.  Only 
long  and  patient  training  will  enable  a  reader  to  become 
thus  proficient,  and  the  training  cannot  begin  too  early. 

35.  Reading  Aloud  at  Home. — As  a  step  toward  secur- 
ing intelligible  reading,  and  as  a  help  in  creating  a  taste 
for  fireside  reading,  children  should  be  encouraged  to 
read  aloud  at  home  frequently,  even  though  their  read- 
ing be  but  imperfect.  It  will  do  them  great  good,  and 
be  an  incentive  to  improvement. 

36.  Concert  Reading. — Concert  reading  should  be  in- 
dulged in  cautiously  and  only  to  a  limited  extent.  It 
is  claimed  for  concert  reading  that  it  is  beneficial — 

1.  In  bringing  out  the  voices  of  the  timid  ; 

2.  In  checking  the  speed  of  those  who  read  too  rap- 
idly ; 

3.  In  quickening  the  speed  of  those  who  read  too 
slowly ; 

4.  In  waking  up  the  class ; 

5.  As  an  exercise  in  articulation  and  pronunciation. 
There   are,    however,  serious    objections   to    frequent 

concert  reading,  one  of  the  most  important  of  which  is 
that  the  weak  learn  to  depend  upon  the  strong,  and  in 
the  exercise  they  merely  pronounce  the  words,  feeling 
that  in  the  confusion  of  tones  they  will  not  be  detected. 


96  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

Concert  reaJiug  is  likely  also  to  destroy  natural  expres- 
sion. 

If  concert  reading  be  indulged  in,  it  will  be  profitable 
to  have  the  class  read  in  sections.  The  class  may  be 
divided  into  two  sections,  one  of  which  shall  read 
against  the  other,  thus  holding  out  to  each  section  an 
incentive  to  do  well  and  excel  the  other.  The  class 
may  also  be  divided  into  a  larger  number  of  sections, 
each  of  which  may  read  in  turn,  the  teacher  acting  as 
judge  to  decide  upon  the  merits  of  the  reading  of  the 
respective  sections. 

37.  Reproduction  on  Slate. — An  exercise  of  great  value 
is  that  of  the  teacher's  selecting  some  interesting  story  or 
de5:cription  and  having  the  pujnls  listen  to  him  while  he 
reftds  it  to  them,  they  to  reproduce  it  afterward  on  their 
slrtes  or  on  paper.  The  exercise  gives  valuable  culture 
to  the  power  of  attention,  and  the  subsequent  writing  of 
it  is  an  excellent  lan<2;uai;e-lesson. 

38.  Holding  the  Attention. — If  the  class  seem  inclined 
to  be  inattentive,  an  exercise  somewhat  as  folloAvs  maybe 
given :  Begin  with  a  pupil,  and  let  him  read  until  the 
name  of  some  other  pupil  is  called.  Suddenly  call  upon 
another,  who  takes  up  the  .sentence  or  the  paragra[)h  pre- 
cisely where  it  was  dropped  by  his  predecessor  and  pro- 
ceeds to  read  until  he  in  turn  is  interrupted  by  the  teacher's 
calling  upon  another.  Should  any  of  those  called  upon  1)6 
not  ready  to  proceed,  the  teacher  should  lose  no  time,  but 
call  at  once  upon  some  one  else,  and  thus  keep  close 
attention  and  constant  interest. 

39.  Reading  Paragraphs. — In  reading  paragraphs  the 
exercise  may  be  varied  by  having  several  pupils  in  suc- 
cession read  the  same  paragraph,  each  giving  expression 


KEADING.  97 

to  the  sentiment  of  the  paragraph  according  to  his  own 
mental  apprehension  of  it,  and  then  again  having  each 
of  the  pupils  read  a  different  paragraph.  This  will  give 
variety  to  the  reading-exercise  and  add  to  the  interest  of 
the  recitation. 

40.  Inaccuracies  to  be  Corrected. — The  teacher  should 
give  careful  attention  to  the  pupil's  speech  at  all  times, 
and  bv  an  occasional  hint  or  suggestion  set  him  arioht 
where  his  pronunciation  is  incorrect  or  his  articulation 
faulty.  It  is  not  enough  to  correct  the  words  as  mispro- 
nounced in  the  reading-class.  Many  more  words  are  likely 
to  be  mispronounced  in  conversation  or  in  the  recitations 
in  other  branches.  It  would  not  be  wise,  of  course,  for 
the  teacher  to  break  into  a  conversation  in  order  to  make 
a  correction.  There  are  many  otlier  times  and  occasions 
Avhen  he  may  reach  the  error  and  correct  it  without  ne- 
cessarily wounding  the  child's  feelings.  Thus,  a  list  of  mis- 
pronounced words  heard  during  the  day  may  be  placed  on 
the  blackboard,  and  the  attention  of  the  whole  class  be 
directed  to  them  for  a  few  moments,  and  the  necessary 
corrections  be  made. 

41.  Local  Errors. — There  are  probably  few  communities 
where  some  provincialisms  do  not  mar  the  elegance  and 
beauty  of  oral  speech.  It  may  be  the^ound  of  w  for  v, 
or  cli  for  J,  or  J  for  cAy  or  the  dropping  of  the  r  in  liorsc, 
or  the  addition  of  r  in  idea,  or  the  dropping  of  A  in  limiy 
or  the  addino;  of  the  A  to  such  words  as  hi  or  on.  or  the 
pronunciation  of  to  as  if  spelled  toxc,  or  the  pronunciation 
of  such  words  as  calj  with  the  short  sound  of  a,  or  other 
equally  flagrant  errors. 

AVhat  shall  the  teacher  do?    In  general,  he  should  try 
to  make  his  own  speech  conform  to  the  best  standards, 
7 


98  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

and  as  far  as  possible  train  his  pupils  to  imitate  him; 
and  vet  he  should  not  be  over-nice  in  his  distinctness  of 
articulation  or  over-rigid  in  insisting  upon  the  pupils' giv- 
ing the  exact  vowel-sounds  where  custom  diifers  so  widely 
amono;  educated  and  cultured  scholars  as  it  does  on  the 
sound  of  a  as  found  in  the  M'ords  ask,  glass,  and  sim- 
ilar words. 

42.  Defining  Pkrases. — It  frequently  occurs  that  defini- 
tions to  single  words  will  give  the  learner  no  adequate  idea 
of  the  meaning  of  the  sentence.  Indeed,  where  figurative 
language  is  extensively  used  the  children  sliould  be  ques- 
tioned on  the  expressions  as  wholes  rather  tlian  on  the 
individual  words.  Thus,  in  the  Persian  fable,  where  a 
rat  living  near  a  bin  of  wheat  gnaws  through,  and  the 
poet  thus  expresses  the  result, 

""Wlien  on  him  rained  a  golden  shower, 
And  lie  became  a  rat  of  power," 

the  questions  should  not  be,  What  is  the  meaning  of 
rained  f  O?  (joldenf  O^  shower  f  for  this  will  not  ex- 
press the  meaning,  but,  What  does  the  poet  mean  by 
saying,  "On  him  rained  a  golden  shower"?  This  plan 
of  questioning  will  cultivate  thought,  and  pupils  will 
learn  to  appreciate  the  beauties  of  figurative  language 
as  well  as  the  directness  of  plain  statement. 

43.  Phonic  Drills. — When  pupils  have  once  learned 
the  table  of  elementary  sounds,  it  will  be  found  a  val- 
uable exercise  to  give  them  an  occasional  drill  on  the 
various  combinations  of  sounds,  particularly  the  conso- 
nant combinations,  both  in  connection  with  words  and 
eeparately.  This  will  tend  to  make  the  vocal  organs 
flexible  and  place  them  under  complete  control  of  the 


READING.  99 

Bpeaker.  "With  the  yoanger  pupils  it  is  better  to  give 
the  first  drills  in  connection  with  words,  both  for  the 
reason  that  they  are  easier  to  give  in  tliis  way,  and  be- 
cause the  lesson  may  be  made  more  interesting. 

44.  Open  the  Mouth. — Pupils  should  be  trained  to  opec 
tha  mouth  when  reading.  By  this  it  is  not  meant  that 
the  lips  should  be  placed  wide  apart,  but  rather  that  the 
jaws  should  be  separated,  so  as  to  let  the  sound  flow 
freely  and  without  interruption  by  the  teeth.  This 
result  may  be  secured  by  frequent  and  continued  drills 
on  words  containing   the  sounds  of  a  as   in   arm  and 

all. 

45.  Over-distinct  Articulation. — Do  not  let  your  pupil§ 
form  the  habit  of  giving  an  over-nice  and  over-distinct 
pronunciation,  as  gos'peU,  jpu'pil',  etc.,  throwing  almost 
as  much  force  on  tiie  second  syllable  as  on  the  first.  Sc 
also  we  should  avoid  the  opposite  extremes  of  pronoun- 
cino-  "  the  book,"  the  book  and  thu  book;  rather  subdue  the 
c-sound  and  call  it  th'  book;  thus  also  a-man',  a-eart', 
throwing  the  force  on  the  important  word. 

46.  Substituting  Synonyms.— The  substitution  of  syn- 
onyms is  a  most  valuable  exercise,  not  only  in  giving 
the  child  a  vocabulary,  but  also  in  training  him  to  dis- 
tinguish the  sense  of  what  he  reads.  •  It  consists  in  hav- 
ing the  pupil  substitute  a  word  of  similar  signification 
for  some  word  in  a  sentence  selected  by  the  teacher,  in 
such  a  way  that  the  sense  of  the  sentence  may  not  be 
destroyed.  Pupils  will  take  great  interest  in  the  exer- 
cise, and  it  will  prove  valuable  in  developing  thought. 

47.  The  Teacher  must  be  Interested. — This  is  one  of 
the  chief  essentials  to  success,  not  only  in  teaching  read- 
ins:,  but  also  iu  teaching;  all  other  branches.    The  teac.b^f 


100  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

who  feels  an  interest  in  his  primary  classes,  and  who  will 
teach  correct  reading  from  the  beginning  on,  will  always 
succeed  in  making  good  natural  readers,  which  are  inva- 
riably the  best. 

48.  Preparation  of  the  Lesson. — It  is  not  only  neces- 
sary that  the  pupil  give  tlie  lesson  previous  study ;  this 
studv  must  be  intelligent  studv,  and  in  order  to  make  it 
such  the  teacher  has  certain  work  to  do.  He  should  pre- 
pare every  lesson  carefully  before  assigning  it,  that  he 
may  know  definitely  just  what  work,  and  how  much,  he 
is  asking  his  pupils  to  perform. 

It  is  a  good  plan  for  him  to  read  the  lesson  aloud,  or 
at  least  some  of  the  most  difficult  parts  of  it,  when  he 
assigns  it,  calling  the  attention  of  the  pupils  to  the  new 
or  difficult  words,  explaining  literary  allusions,  referring 
the  pupils  to  certain  biographical  or  historical  works  to 
enable  them  to  explain  such  reference  as  is  made  to  cha- 
racters in  biography  or  history,  and  see  that  they  get  the 
general  thought  of  the  author  and  the  aim  of  the  piece. 
All  this  will  prepare  them  to  study  the  selection  intelli- 
gently and  witli  interest. 

When  tlie  class  is  called  for  recitation  the  teacher 
should  satisfy  himself  that  all  have  studied  the  lesson, 
and  to  do  this  he  may  pursue  a  plan  somewhat  as  fol- 
lows : 

1.  Question  some  as  to  the  subject-matter  of  the  les- 
EOTi  and  the  aim  of  the  piece  to  be  read. 

2.  Question  others  as  to  what  places,  persons,  or  ob- 
jects are  named  in  the  piece. 

3.  Question  also  as  to  the  leading  thoughts  or  inci- 
dents mentioned  in  the  piece,  the  pupils  of  course  being 
permitted  to  express  themselves  in  their  own  language. 


READING.  101 

4.  Question  as  to  the  pronunciation  and  meaning  of 
any  new  or  unfamiliar  words  found  in  the  selection. 

5.  Question  on  such  biographical  or  historical  allu- 
sions as  were  referred  to  during  the  preceding  lesson- 
period. 

This  plan  is  simply  suggestive,  of  course,  and  the 
teacher  should  not  attempt  to  follow  it  every  day,  for 
it  will  consume  much  time  if  both  teacher  and  pu])ils 
become  interested  in  the  lesson. 

II!.  The  Vocal  Element  in  Reading. 
It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  book  to  discuss  in  full 
the  methods  of  the  elocutionist;  his  work  is  that  of  a 
specialist.  The  intention  of  the  author  is  to  give 
simply  a  few  general  directions  for  the  teaching  of  the 
chief  vocal  elements,  Qualifi/,  Emphasis,  Force,  Pitch,  In- 
flection,  and  Rate,  believing  that  these  are  the  essentials, 
and  that  a  fuller  discussion,  while  it  might  interest  the 
few,  would  simply  tend  to  confuse  the  many. 

Quality. 

Quality  of  voice  has  reference  to  the  kind  of  tone 
used  in  speaking  and  reading.  Different  sentiments 
may  be  expressed  by  different  tones.  Indeed,  tlie  tone 
sometimes  conveys  the  sentiment  much  more  readily 
than  do  the  words.  Thus,  a  pleasant  voice,  rich  in 
tone,  will  often  control  an  audience  more  effectively 
and  make  time  pass  more  pleasantly,  though  the  sen- 
timents uttered  be  of  but  ordinary  interest,  than  greater 
wisdom  conveyed  through  the  means  of  a  voice  harsh 
and  untrained. 

The  three  chief  tones  in  which  nearly  all  sentiments 
are  expressed  are  named  as  follows :  Pure,  Orotund,  and 


102  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

Aspirated.  To  these  may  be  added  a  number  of  others, 
as  the  WJnspc7-ed,  consisting  of  breath  only;  the  Gut- 
tural, which  is  a  deep  throat-tone;  the  Tremor,  which 
is  a  tremulous  movement  of  the  voice;  and  still  others; 
but  for  general  reading  the  first  three  named  are  suf- 
ficient. 

Pure  Tone  is  smooth  and  clear.  It  is  used  in  ordinary 
conversation,  and  is  the  expression  of  that  which  is  joyous, 
light,  or  agreeable.     It  is  used  also  to  exj)ress  sadness. 

The  Orotund  is  the  same  as  Pure  Tone,  but  magnified 
and  intensified.  It  is  used  in  expressing  that  which  is 
descriptive  of  grandeur,  sublimity,  awe,  solemnity,  or 
reverence. 

The  Aspirated  Tone  is  tone  combined  with  breath 
forcibly  expelled.  It  may  be  called  a  half  whisi)er. 
Aspirated  Tone  is  used  to  express  secrecy,  fear,  wonder, 
terror,  or  Jwrror. 

In  teachino;  readins:  tlie  character  of  the  sentiment  to 
be  expressed  must  determine  the  tone  or  quality  of  voice 
in  which  the  piece  is  to  be  read.  PujmIs  must  be  trained 
to  adapt  the  tone  to  the  sentiment.  They  should  be  exer- 
cised on  the  various  qualities  of  voice,  the  teacher  select- 
ing at  first  such  pieces  as  require  only  pure  conversational 
tones,  and  requesting  tlie  pupils  to  express  them  naturally, 
as  thev  would  in  ordinary  conversation.  Similar  exer- 
cises should  be  given  to  develop  the  other  qualities  of 
voice  named,  and  the  pupils  be  trained  at  length  to  read 
well  in  any  tone  required. 

A  valuable  exercise  is  that  of  having  them  examine 
various  selections  from  time  to  time,  and  tell  in  what 
tone  each  should  be  read,  thus  adapting  the  tone  to  the 
character  of  the  selection. 


READING. 


103 


Empliasis. 

Emplmsis  is  a  stress  of  voice  placed  on  one  or  more 
words  of  a  sentence. 

The  important  words  of  a  sentence,  together  with  those 
which  introduce  new  ideas,  are  those  which  usually  receive 
the  emphasis.  Emphasis  serves  to  point  out  the  meaning 
of  a  speaker,  and  puts  his  audience  in  sympathy  with  his 
thoughts. 

The  chief  kinds  of  emphasis  are  absolute,  antithetic,  and 

cumulative. 

Absolute  Emphasis  is  that  which  is  applied  to  the 
prominent  ideas  to  be  expressed,  without  reference  to 
other  ideas. 

Antithetic  Emphasis  is  tliat  wliich  is  used  in  expressing 
contrasted  ideas,  as  in  the  following : 

He  liveth  long  who  liveth  well. 

A  cottage  flower  gives  honey  to  the  bee — a  king's  garden 
none  to  the  butterfly. 

Cumulative  Emphasis  is  that  which  is  applied  to  a 
succession  of  emphatic  words  in  Mdiich  the  last  receives 
more  empliasis  than  its  predecessor,  as  in  the  expres- 
sions— 

To  arms  !  to  arms  !  ye  brave. 

Boat  ahoy  !  boat  ahoy  ! ! 

Usually,  the  words  which  modify  the  subject  or  the 
predicate  of  a  sentence  are  emphasized.  Thus,  in  the 
sentence,  "The  meanest  man  is  not  without  friends," 
the  word  meanest,  which  modifies  the  subject  man,  re- 
ceives more  emphasis  than  the  word  which  it  modifies. 
So  also  in  the  sentence,  ''The  horse  ran  rapidly  across 
the  pasture,"  the  word  rapidly  and  the  phrase  across  the 


104  METHODS   OF   TEACHI>'G. 

pasture,  botli  of  -svliieh  modify  the  predicate  ran,  receivi 
more  emplmsis  than  the  predicate  itself. 

When  the  modifiers  are  themselves  modified,  their  mod- 
ifiers are  usually  emphasized.  Tims,  in  the  sentence, ''  The 
little  boy  learns  very  rapidly,"  the  Avord  rapidly  is  empha- 
sized as  a  modifier  of  the  predicate,  but  the  word  very, 
which  modifies  the  modifier  rapidly,  and  intensifies  it, 
receives  still  more  emphasis. 

The  exceptions  to  the  foregoing  principle  are  found 
when  special  ideas  are  to  be  expressed,  as  where  we  would 
desire  to  place  the  word  rapidly  in  contrast  with  the  word 
slowly,  and  thus  emphasize  by  the  rule  of  Antithetic  Em- 
phasis. 

An  excellent  exercise  in  the  teaching  of  erajihasis  is  that 
of  having  pupils  point  out  the  emphatic  Avords  in  such 
sentences  as  they  understand  fully.  Sentence-building 
also  gives  them  excellent  training.  Thus,  let  the  teacher 
name  a  short  sentence,  as  "  The  dog  eats,"  and  then  let 
the  pupils  build  to  the  subject  as  follows:  The  black  dog 
eats ;  The  little  dog  eats ;  The  spotted  dog  eats,  etc.  The 
pupils  will  naturally  emjjhasize  the  adjective  modifiers. 
K ow  change  the  exercise,  and  let  them  build  to  the  pred- 
icate; thus, The  dog  eats  meat;  The  dog  eats  bread;  The 
doe  eats  o-reedilv ;  The  dog  eats  in  the  kitchen,  etc.,  and 
they  will  emphasize  the  modifiers  of  the  predicate. 

In  Antithetic  Emphasis  give  a  number  of  sentences,  and 
let  the  pupils  first  select  the  words  in  antithesis,  and  then 
read,  giving  these  antithetic  words  the  emphasis. 

Force. 

Force  is  the  volume  or  degree  of  loudness  used  in 
reading  a  selection.    By  some  it  is  claimed  that  empha- 


READING.  105 

sis  is  but  a  special  kind  of  force;  bnt  if  this  were  true, 
accent  would  necessarily  be  a  special  kind  of  emphasis 
or  also  a  special  kind  of  force.  Force  has  reference 
to  the  general  degree  of  loudness  used  in  the  reading 
of  a  piece. 

The  three  chief  decrrecs  of  force  used  in  reading  are 
known  as  moderate,  loud,  and  gentle. 

Whatever  may  be  the  character  of  the  piece  to  be  read, 
the  force  should  be  of  sufficient  loudness  to  make  the 
reader  clearly  understood  by  all  his  audience. 

3Ioderate  Force  is  that  used  in  ordinary  conversation 
and  in  the  reading  of  such  narrative,  descriptive,  and 
other  pieces  as  are  not  specially  animated. 

Loud  Force  is  used  in  reading  selections  of  a  declam- 
afory  character;  also  those  cxj^ressing  sentiments  of  a 
joyous  or  animated  nature. 

Gentle  Force  is  that  which  is  used  to  express  senti- 
ments of  a  gentle,  tender,  subdued,  or  solemn  nature. 

In  teachino;  force  nothing  is  more  valuable  than 
having  pupils  put  in  practice  the  principle  heretofore 
suggested — that  Avhatever  the  character  of  the  piece, 
the  first  point  of  importance  is  to  read  so  loud  that 
the  reader  may  be  clearly  understood  by  his  audience. 
The  first  exercises  in  teachinsr  force  should  be  on  nar- 
rative  or  descriptive  pieces,  such  as  require  a  moderate 
degree  of  force,  and  in  which  the  pupil  finds  himself 
telling  of  some  scene  or  event  in  tlie  lancruap^e  of  an- 
oilier  and  in  a  natural  tone  of  voice.  As  a  variation 
of  this  plan  the  pupil  may  have  an  exercise  in  articu- 
lating the  elementary  sounds,  particularly  the  vocal 
sounds,  then  in  repeating  a  few  sentences. 

Similar  exercises  may  be  conducted  to  give  practice  in 


106  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

Loud  Force  and  in  Gentle  Force.     A  valuable  exercise 

consists  in   repenting  the  elementary  sounds  first  with 

IModerate    Force,    then    with    Loud    Force,    and    again 

with  Gentle  Force. 

After  these  exercises  a  number  of  sentences  should  be 

assigned  by  dictation,  whicli  the  pupil  should  examine, 

and  at  the  following  recitation  he  should  be  able  not 

only  to  tell  the  degree  of  force  M'ith  whicli  they  should 

be  read,  but  also  be  able  to  read  them.     Lessons  should 

also  be  analyzed,  and  the  pupil  be  trained  to  judge  and 

name   the  force   with  which   each    sentence   should    be 

read. 

Pitcll. 

Pitch  in  reading  denotes  the  general  tone  of  voice  in 
which  the  sentence,  paragraph,  or  selection  is  read. 

When  the  voice  rises  or  falls  from  the  general  or  pre- 
vailing pitch,  it  does  so  by  inflections. 

The  Keynote  is  the  standard  pitch  or  tone  which  cha- 
racterizes the  reading  of  any  selection.  It  is  sometimes 
called  also  the  Standard  Pitch. 

The  three  most  important  grades  of  pitch  are  termed 
Middle  Pitch,  Higli  Pitch,  and  Low  Pitch.  These  are, 
however,  merely  relative  grades:  that  is,  there  is  no 
definite  note  of  the  musical  scale  fixed  for  any  one  of 
these  degrees.  Different  voices  differ  naturally  in  pitch; 
thus,  what  is  Middle  Pitch  in  one  is  possibly  High  Pitch 
or  Low  Pitch  in  another. 

In   general,  the   pitch  of   men's  voices   is  an  octave 
lower  than   that  of  women's  voices,  but  there  is  also  a 
very  great  difference  in  the  voices  of  either  sex.     Thus 
women's  voices   are   usually  classed    as   soprano   (high 
pitch),  alto   (low  pitch),  and  contralto  (medium  pitch) 


HEADING.  10 


•> 


Meifs  voices  are  classed  as  ienor  (high  pitch),  hass  (low 
pitch),  and  baritone  (medium  pitch). 

2Iiddle  Pitch  is  that  employed  in  commnu  conversation 
or  in  reading  tliat  which  is  unemotional. 

High  Pitch  is  that  which  rises  above  the  ordinary 
speaking  tone  ;  it  is  used  to  express  that  which  is  joy- 
ous or  elevated,  also  sentiments  which  are  subdued,  so)'- 
rou-ful,  or  pathetic.  It  is  used  also  wheu  fear,  hate,  or 
anger  is  represented. 

Low  Pitch  is  that  which  falls  below  the  ordinary 
speaking  tone ;  it  is  used  to  express  sentiments  which 
are  grave  or  solemn. 

One  of  tlie  first  exercises  in  teaching  pitch  is  to  drill 
pupils  on  the  musical  scale  until  all  can  give  it  ac- 
curatelv. 

The  pupils  may  be  required  to  repeat  together  the 
elementary  vowel-sounds  on  a  pitch  indicated  by  the 
teacher,  and  then  either  ascend  or  descend  from  one 
degree  of  pitch  to  another  as  the  teacher  may  indicate, 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  give  variety  of  pitch  and  impart 
readiness  and  ability  to  strike  the  required  pitch  prompt- 
ly and  accurately.  Short  sentences  may  be  used  for  the 
same  purpose  as  the  elementary  sounds  in  an  exercise  of 
this  kind. 

The  definitions  of  the  various  degrees  of  pitch  will 
enable  either  teacher  or  pupil,  if  the  latter  be  an  intel- 
ligent reader,  to  adapt  the  pitch  to  the  sentiment  of  the 
piece  to  be  read. 

The  chief  errors  to  be  corrected  In  connection  with  the 
teaching  of  pitch  are  the  following: 

1.  I*upils  and  speakers  before  an  audience  are  apt  to 
pitch  the  voice  in  too  high  a  key,  under  the  impression 


108  METHODS   OF   TEACH  IXG. 

that  the  higher  the  key  the  more  distinctly  they  will  be 
heard.  The  same  difficulty  occurs  where  pupils  recite  or 
declaim.  The  error  is  best  corrected  by  having  the  pupil 
recite  to  a  single  individual  or  two,  that  he  may  acquire 
a  natural  mode  of  expression  and  speak  in  natural  tones. 
It  is  best,  therefore,  that  such  pieces  as  are  adapted  to 
Middle  Pitch  be  selected  first. 

2.  Pupils  do  not  always  distinguish  between  pitch  and 
force.  Pitch,  it  must  be  remembered,  has  nothing  to  do 
with  tlie  loudness  or  softness  of  one's  reading,  but  is 
entirely  dependent  on  the  relative  tone  of  the  musical 
scale.  Should  pupils  fail  to  make  the  proper  dis- 
tinction, the  teacher  should  illustrate,  and  join  with 
them  In  their  reading  until  they  fully  understand  the 
difference. 

Pupils  sometimes  fail  to  adapt  the  pitch  to  the  senti- 
ment. Much  of  public  reading,  particularly  from  the 
pulpit,  is  open  to  criticism  in  this  respect — that  there 
is  but  little  variation  in  the  pitch  of  voice  so  as  to  make 
.it  harmonize  with  the  sentiment  to  be  read. 

Inflections. 

Inflections  are  slides  of  the  voice  either  upward  or 
downward.  Reading  without  inflections  produces  mono- 
tone, which  is  never  heard  in  natural  conversation.  We 
naturallv  bccrin  in  one  tone,  and  end  a  word  in  either  a 
•higher  or  a  lower  key.  "We  hardly  speak  even  two  suc- 
cessive syllables  in  the  same  key.  What  we  do  thus  nat- 
urally in  conversation  we  should  do  also  in  our  reading, 
in  order  to  make  it  pleasant  and  musical. 

The  upward  slide  of  the  voice  is  known  as  the  Rising 
Injicdlon,  and  the  downward  slide  as  the  Fallinrj  IdjIx- 


KEADIXG.  109 

tion;   all  othei   inflections  are  but  combinations  of  the 
rising  and  the  falling. 

The  Eising  Inflection  is  usually  indicated  by  the  fol- 
lowing character  ( ' ),  called  the  acute  accent,  and  the  falling 
by  the  following  ( ^ ),  called  the  grave  accent. 

In  order  that  the  pupil  may  give  proper  inflection,  he 
must  first  study  thoroughly  and  faithfully  the  selection 
to  be  read,  until  he  fully  understands  the  meaning  of 
every  part  of  it.  When  once  he  fully  understands  the 
selection,  if  he  has  been  trained  to  read  naturally,  so 
as  to  convey  the  meaning  to  others,  he  will  need  no 
rules  to  direct  him.  The  inflections,  like  the  emphasis, 
will  usually  be  correct. 

Exercises  may  be  given  on  inflection  by  using  some 
of  the  vocal  elements  in  connection  with  the  diatonic  or 
musical  scale.  Thus,  pupils  may  give  the  long  sound  of 
a  or  any  other  of  the  vowel-sounds  on  the  keynote,  and 
then  slide  to  the  next  tone  above  or  below,  called  the 
second ;  or  the  voice  may  be  trained  to  slide  two  tones, 
or  three,  or  even  a  full  octave.  This  will  give  flexibility 
to  the  voice,  but  the  matter  of  adapting  the  slide  to  the 
various  sentiments  is  the  special  work  of  the  elocutionist, 
and  probably  beyond  the  limited  knowledge  of  the  child- 
reader. 

Rate. 

Bate  is  the  degree  of  rapidity  Avith  which  the  voice 
iiiovcs  in  reading. 

Rate  may  be  either  moderate,  rapid,  or  sloio. 

Moderate  Rate  is  that  used  in  ordinary  narration  or 
d^scrijAion. 

Rapid  Rate  is  used  to  express  sentiments  o^  joy,  ff<^ycty, 
mirth,  anger,  or  fear. 


110  METHODS    OF    TEACIIIXG. 

Slow  Bate  is  used  to  express  that  which  is  nolle,  dlgni' 
Jied,  OY  grand;  also,  that  which  is  solemn,  subdued,  ■patheticy 
or  grave. 

The  character  of  the  piece  to  be  read  will  deterraiue 
what  rate  should  be  used.  In  general,  however,  the 
rate  should  never  be  so  slow  as  to  be  sluggish,  nor 
should  it  be  so  rapid  as  to  make  the  reading  indistiuct; 
both  are  serious  errors.  Both  faults  may  to  some  extent 
be  corrected  by  exercises  in  concert  readiug,  though  this 
exercise,  as  has  been  suggested,  should  be  indulged  in 
cautiously  and  to  a  very  limited  extent. 

The  student  should  exercise  great  care  that  the  words 
do  not  follow  one  another  in  too  rapid  succession.  Let 
each  Avord  be  fully  uttered  before  articulating  any  part 
of  its  successor,  otherwise  there  will  be  a  clipping  of 
syllables  which  will  greatly  mar  the  beauty  of  reading. 

Care  must  be  taken  in  rapid  reading  that  the  voice  do 
not  rise  above  the  natural  ])itch.  The  pupil  should  be 
trained  to  read  a  sentence  first  slowly,  then  increase  the 
rate  gradually  until  he  can  read  it  with  no  greater  rapid- 
ity without  becoming  indistinct  in  his  utterance.  The 
teacher  must  be  careful  never  to  force  a  pupil  in  read- 
ing bevond  the  limit  of  distinctness  in  articulation. 

The  usual  error  of  pupils  is  that  of  reading  all  pieces 
Avith  nearly  the  same  rate.  Some  are  naturally  more 
rapid  in  speech  than  others,  as  their  temperament  may 
be  more  nervous,  and  therefore  they  will  read  more  rap- 
idly. These,  as  well  as  they  who  read  too  slowly  because 
of  natural  temperament,  need  the  example  and  the  encour- 
agement of  the  teacher  to  train  them  to  a  proper  rate  of 
utterance. 

Pupils  whose  rate  is  too  rapid  should  be  led  to  dwell 


EEADIXG.  Ill 

lono-er  on  the  vowel-sounds,  while  those  whose  rate  is 
too  slow  should  be  trained  to  speak  their  words  more 
quickly  by  dwelling  a  shorter  time  on  the  vowel-sounds. 
They  mav  also  be  required  to  read  selections  of  an  ani- 
mated nature. 

Pauses. 

Pauses  are  intervals  or  cessations  of  the  voice  between 
words,  sentences,  etc. 

The  two  chief  kinds  of  pauses  are  known  as  Gram- 
matical Pauses  and  Rhetorical  Pauses. 

Grammatical  Pauses  are  those  which  indicate  the 
grammatical  divisions  of  discourse.  They  are  indi- 
cated usually  by  marks  of  punctuation. 

Rhetorical  Pauses  are  those  which  are  used  for  the 
purpose  of  indicating  the  sentiment  of  a  discourse. 
Thev  are  determined  whollv  bv  the  sense  to  be  ex- 
pressed  and  by  the  good  judgment  of  the  reader. 
These  pauses  are  necessary  to  the  reader  to  enable 
him  to  express  himself  forcibly  and  gracefully,  and 
to  enable  him  to  rest  his  voice  and  to  breathe,  so  that 
his  utterance  mav  be  easv  and  natural. 

They  are  necessary  to  the  hearer  in  order  that  he  may 
have  time  to  grasp  each  thought  expressed,  fully  com- 
prehend it.  and  see  its  relation  to  that  which  has  gone 
before.  They  also  rest  the  mind  of  the  listener,  and 
enable  him  to  receive  a  deeper  impression  of  the  senti- 
ment expressed. 

Teachers  should  be  careful  that  pupils  do  not  acquire 
the  notion  that  marks  of  punctuation  indicate  rhetorical 
pauses.  A  semicolon  may  sometimes  require  a  greater 
cessation  of  voice  than  a  peiiiod.  Indeed,  som(!time3 
the  very  absence  of  a  punctuation-mark  may  indicate  a 


112  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

greater  pause  of  voice  than  the  presence  of  one  of  these 
grammatical  characters. 

Train  pupils  to  understand  that  the  sentiment  to  be 
expressed  determines  the  length  of  pause  to  be  used, 
and  that  in  general  the  greater  the  emphasis  and  the 
more  important  and  impressive  the  sentiment,  the  longer 
should  be  the  pause.  The  comparative  length  of  pauses 
agrees  with  the  rate  employed,  and  therefore  what  might 
be  considered  a  long  pause  in  Kapid  Rate  Avould  be  but 
a  short  pause  in  Slow  Hate. 

A  proper  use  of  pauses  may  be  taught  by  having  pupils 
read  naturally,  as  sujro-ested  in  connection  with  Primary 
Readinir :  also,  bv  havino:  them  first  divide  the  sentences 
to  be  read  into  phrases,  and  read  these  naturally. 

General  Suggestions  on  Teaching   Reading. 

1.  Previous  Study. — The  pupil  should  not  be  asked  to 
read  a  selection  which  is  beyond  his  capacity  to  ap])reci- 
ate  and  understand  fully.  The  difficulty  of  the  piece 
should  be  adapted  to  the  ability  of  the  child,  and  then 
he  should  be  required  to  give  it  careful  study,  that  he 
may  be  able  to  read  it  impressively. 

2.  Create  a  Taste  for  Reading. — A  taste  for  good  reading 
will  last  through  life.  How  much  good  might  be  accom- 
plished if  we  could  create  a  desire  on  the  part  of  our 
pu})ils  to  read  good  books  for  the  sake  of  the  infor- 
mation they  contain  or  the  pleasure  they  may  give ! 
It  would  rob  the  school-methods  of  teaching  reading 
of  half  the  difficulties  with  which  they  are  attended, 
and  produce  most  excellent  results. 

3.  A  Period  for  Reading. — Much  might  be  done  in  the 
way  of  creating  a  taste  for  reading  by  setting  apart  a  spe- 


READING.  113 

cial  time  oacli  clay  for  the  pupils  to  enjoy  themselves  in 
the  reading  of  such  books  or  papers  as  are  likely  to  in- 
terest them  or  convey  information.  The  plan  might  be 
varied  by  the  teacher's  reading  to  them  occasionally  a 
short  storv  or  an  interesting  description. 

4.  Newspapers  in  Class. — But  few  if  any  series  of 
Readers  furnish  all  the  exercise  a  child  should  have. 
Anything,  therefore,  will  prove  valuable  which  will  cre- 
ate in  the  child  a  taste  and  desire  to  read  for  the  sake  of 
reading.  In  this  direction  children's  magazines,  story- 
books written  in  such  language  as  the  child  understands, 
but  not  necessarily  in  monosyllables,  or  children's  news- 
papers,  will  prove  specially  valuable.  Care  must  be  taken, 
however,  that  the  newspapers  be  such  as  are  not  given  to 
dealing  in  slander  and  slang.  These  are  liable  to  do  more 
mischief  than  good. 

As  a  special  feature,  the  children  may  be  permitted 
to  bring  newspapers  into  class,  and  each  read  his  own 
selections  in  such  a  way  as  to  interest  the  other  members 
of  the  class.  If  he  can  do  this,  he  will  be  able  to  show 
that  he  is  on  the  right  road,  and  the  difficulties  of  learning 
to  read  will  vanish  one  by  one. 

5.  Original  Selections. — The  teacher  will  find  it  a  good 
plan  in  all  grades  of  classes  to  allow  his  pupils  occasion- 
ally to  make  their  own  selections  to  be  read  in  class.  He 
should  have  these  submitted  to  him,  however,  before  the 
pupil  is  permitted  to  read  publicly,  for  now  and  then  such 
selections  will  be  chosen  by  thoughtless  pupils  as  would 
be  inappropriate  or  such  as  are  beyond  the  ability  of  the 
child  to  read  jn-operly. 

6.  Scrap  Lessons. — Much  interest  may  be  created  hy 
tl  e  teacher's  selectino-  some  suitable  storv  or  de-sc  ription 


114  METUODS    OF    TEACHING. 

from  a  newspaper  and  cutting  it  into  slnrt  paragraphs, 
and  pasting  these  on  bits  of  cardboard.  These  may  then 
be  numbered  and  handed  to  the  ])upils  promiscuously,  who 
read  in  turn  as  the  respective  numbers  on  tlie  cards  are 
•  ailed.  In  order  to  insure  close  attention  let  tlie  wliole 
class  be  required  to  reproduce  the  selection  at  a  subsequent 
recitation,  each  in  his  own  language.  It  affords  excellent 
practice  in  reading,  while  it  also  secures  attention  and 
gives  a  valuable  lesson  in  language  and  composition. 

7.  Readiug-Matches. — Tliese,  like  all  other  contests,  if 
judiciously  conducted,  serve  to  create  considerable  inter- 
est, but  tliere  is  great  danger  of  their  being  of  too  frequent 
occurrence.  Care  must  be  exercised  by  the  teacher  that 
no  ill  feelino-s  arise  between  the  contestants.  In  these 
matciies  each  pui)il  may  read  until  he  is  called  to  his 
seat  by  some  member  of  the  opposite  section  for  a  mis- 
take made,  should  that  occur  before  he  finishes  his  assigned 
portion  of  the  lesson. 

8.  Description  and  Narration. — The  earliest  lessons  in 
reading  should  be  mainly  narration  and  description. 
Pupils  like  to  read  stories  first,  and  therefore  narratives 
are  most  likely  to  interest  them  ;  next  to  these  are  vivid 
descriptions  such  as  they  can  understand.  Children  should 
not  be  promoted  too  rapidly  from  Reader  to  Header,  but 
rather  be  given  such  supplementary  reading  as  is  to  be 
found  in  the  best  children's  magazines  and   papers. 

9.  Analysis  of  the  Lesson. — As  has  been  intimated, 
the  teacher  should  read  the  lesson  to  his  pupils  a  day 
in  advance,  in  order  that  they  may  know  how  to  study 
it.  He  should  do  more  than  this :  he  should  read  it 
with  his  pupils,  calling  attention  to  the  difficult  or  un- 
usual words,  explaining  the  historical,  biographical,  and 


HEADING.  115 

scientific  allusions  in  the  lesson,  and  thus  train  his  pupils 
to  study  the  lesson  uuderstaudingly  and  at  the  same  time 
critically. 

10.  Reading  from  the  Platform. — The  teacher  should 
now  and  then  call  individual  pupils  to  read  from  tlie 
platform.  In  sucii  cases  those  who  remain  at  their 
seats  may  close  their  books  for  the  time,  and  then 
make  criticisms  not  only  on  the  manner  of  reading, 
but  also  on  the  position,  the  tone,  etc.  The  exercise 
will  train  every  pupil  in  time  to  have  confidence  in 
himself  and  in  his  ability  to  stand  up  before  an  au- 
dience and  express  himself.  The  speakers  who  on  the 
first  trial  can  stand  before  an  audience  and  express  them- 
selves in  fluent  and  forcible  speech,  without  clinging  to 
a  table  or  even  to  the  buttons  on  their  coats,  are  few 
indeed.  Heading  from  the  platform  will  help  to  over- 
come this  stage-fear,  at  least  to  some  extent,  and  give 
pupils  confidence  enough  in  themselves  to  permit  them 
at  least  to  read,  if  Jiot  speak,  before  an  audience. 

11.  Committing  to  Memory. — ^\llen  selections  are  mem- 
orized they  should  be  short,  and  only  such  as  contain 
valuable  sentiments  clothed  in  the  best  lano-ua-xe.  Com- 
mitting  to  memory  senseless  rhymes  which  will  not  be 
for2;otten  when  we  want  to  rid  ourselves  of  them  is  not 
only  useless,  but  also  mischievous. 

12.  Breatliing  Exercises. — These  are  important  as  an 
aid  in  securing  correct  posture  and  a  free  use  of  the 
vocal  organs.  They  must,  however,  be  indulged  in 
cautiously,  for  when  improperly  conducted  they  are  very 
exhausting,  and  they  are  liable  to  weary  and  tire  un- 
necessarily. 

In  reading,  pupils  should  be  trained  to  take  breath 


116  METHODS    OF    TEACHI^'G. 

before  they  feel  the  necessity  for  it  and  before  the  huiga 
experience  any  fatigue.  Tlie  lungs  should  not  only  be 
Avell  filled  with  air  before  the  pupil  begins  to  read,  but 
should  also  be  kept  well  filled,  tliat  unnecessary  fatigue 
may  be  avoided. 

An  occasional  exercise  by  the  whole  class  or  by  the 
whole  school  in  deep,  full  breathing  will  be  found  bene- 
ficial. The  breath  should  be  taken  in  slowly  and  ex- 
pelled slowly  through  the  nostrils  in  the  gentler  exer- 
cises, the  windows  being  kept  open  for  the  time  being, 
that  the  air  may  be  fresh  and  ])ure. 

13.  Vocal  Expression. — In  teaching  vocal  expression 
the  teacher  should  not  rest  satisfied  with  having  his 
pupils  imitate  him.  He  ought  to  train  them  to  exam- 
ine the  selection  to  be  read,  and  decide  upon  the  ex- 
pression to  be  used  with  reference  to  force,  rate,  pitch, 
and  the  other  vocal  elements. 

Errors  to  be  Avoided. 

There  are  certain  errors  to  be  avoided  in  teaching 
read  ins:,  most  of  which  concern  both  primary  and 
advanced  reading.  The  teacher  should  exercise  great 
vigilance,  that  these  errors  may  be  corrected  when  the 
child  first  learns  to  read.  Among  the  chief  of  these 
errors  are  the  following: 

1.  Too  Rapid  Reading. — It  is  the  fault  of  many  pupils 
that  they  read  too  rapidly.  This  may  be  corrected 
])artly  by  having  the  class  read  now  and  then  in  concert ; 
also,  by  leading  them  to  dwell  a  longer  time  on  the  vocal 
Bounds.  The  fault  may  be  corrected  partially  by  the 
teacher's  reading  with  the  pupils. 

Pupils  should  be  made  to  adapt  the  rate  to  the  seuti- 


BEADING.  117 

menf  of  the  piece  to  be  read.  It  is  an  effective  but  a 
severe  plan  to  stop  a  pupil  in  the  midst  of  his  reading, 
and  have  him  start  afresh  until  his  rate  is  not  too  rapid. 

2.  Too  Slow  Reading. — A  very  few  pupils  fall  into  the 
habit  of  reading  too  slowly.  It  is  a  difficulty  hard  to 
overcome.  It  is  often  a  lazy  habit,  and  as  such  it  is  con- 
stitutional. The  only  cure  for  it  seems  to  be  that  of 
liaving  the  pupil  read  for  a  time  only  such  selections  as 
are  lively  and  interesting,  with  now  and  then  a  concert 
exercise  in  connection  with  the  more  lively  pupils. 

3.  Failure  to  Adapt  the  Rate  to  the  Sentiment. — Tiiis  is 
a  common  error,  pupils  often  reading  the  grave  with  the 
same  animation  and  rapidity  as  the  gay.  It  arises  from 
the  failure  of  the  pupil  to  understand,  appreciate,  and 
feel  the  sentiment  of  the  piece.  If  the  child  be  taught 
to  read  understandingly,  little  trouble  will  be  experi- 
enced. Practice  on  the  various  styles  of  composition 
■will  in  time  correct  the  error. 

4.  Monotonous  Reading. — This  fault  arises  mainly  from 
the  fact  that  the  child  makes  no  distinction  between  pro- 
nunciation and  reading.  The  error  must  be  corrected  in 
the  verv  beo-inninsr  if  the  teacher  hopes  to  avoid  it  in 
the  future,  and  no  labor  ought  to  be  considered  too  great 
to  start  the  pupils  aright. 

0.  Reading  Too  Loud. — This  is  an  error  of  which  boys 
are  guilty  much  more  frequently  than  girls.  One  of  the 
best  methods  of  correcting  the  error  is  for  the  teacher  to 
take  some  simple  piece  which  ought  to  be  read  in  an 
easy,  conversational  tone,  and  then  proceed  to  show,  be- 
fore the  class  begins  the  recitation,  h.ow  ridiculous  the 
readino-  mav  be  made  bv  uttering  it  with  much  trreater 
force   than  is  required  by  the  sentiment  of  the  piece. 


118  METHODS   OF    TEACHING. 

The  pupils  will  catch  the  hiut,  and  there  are  few  Avho 
will  not  make  efforts  to  avoid  such  incorrect  reading. 
G.  Reading  Too  Low. — Tiiis  error  is  usually  committed 
by  irirls,  thoucrh  it  is  a  fault  which  sometimes  cliaracter- 
izes  the  reading  of  bashful  boys  also.  The  fault  may  be 
the  result  of  timidity  or  bashfulness  ou  the  part  of  the 
pupil,  or  it  may  be  the  result  of  a  weak  voice.  In  either 
case  the  correction  should  be  made  according  to  the  na- 
ture of  the  cause. 

In  the  case  of  a  weak  voice  the  teaclier  must  assign 
such  exercises  as  will  give  strength  to  the  vocal  organs. 
This  is,  however,  rarely  the  true  cause  of  low  reading; 
it  is  usually  the  result  of  timidity,  and  the  only  cure  is 
that  of  traiuinor  the  child  to  have  more  confidence.    Con- 
cert  exercises  are  useful  in  this  direction.     The  teacher 
niav  correct  the  fault  in  time  by  taking  a  position  at  some 
distance  from  the  pupil  and  asking  the  latter  to  read  so 
that  the  teacher  may  hear.     The  plan  of  sending  the 
pupil  to  a  distance  from  the  teacher  is  not  a  good  one, 
as  it  attracts  the  attention  of  the  class  to  the  unfortunate 
pupil,   and    makes  her  embarrassment  all  the  greater. 
Indeed,  when  the  teacher  proceeds  to  take  his  position  at 
a  distance  from  the  child,  it  should  be  done  in  such  way 
as  not  to  attract  attention,  and  the  distance  should  be  in- 
creased so  gradually  that  the  child  may  not  be  permitted 
to  suspect  the  object  the  teacher  has  in  view. 

It  has  been  suoro-ested  that  affectation  is  a  cause  of 
low  reading.  This  is  very  rarely  the  case.  Sensible 
pupils  are  never  affected,  and  few  teachers  have  a  per- 
sonal knowledge  of  any  great  number  of  pupils  who 
read  in  this  manner  because  of  affectation.  Should 
Buch,  however,  prove  to  be  the  cause,  the  plans  already 


READING.  119 

suo-"-Gstc(l,  ton-etlicr  with  a  little  judicious  criticism,  will 
correct  the  fault  in  good  time. 

7.  Drawling. — This  habit  is  the  result  of  either  laziness 
or  ignorance.  In  the  case  of  its  arising  from  laziness,  it 
may  be  corrected  by  giving  the  pupil  something  to  read 
in  which  he  is  interested— some  little  story  or  anecdote. 
When  the  fault  is  the  result  of  ignorance,  it  will  usually 
be  found  that  the  pupil  has  fallen  into  the  habit  uncon- 
sciously or  that  he  does  not  read  understandingly.  It 
is  probable  that  in  many  cases  M'here  a  pupil  drawls  he 
does  not  prepare  his  lesson  with  any  other  end  in  view 
than  that  of  pronouncing  the  words,  and  he  holds  on 
to  the  last  pronounced  until  he  is  sure  of  a  footing  on 
the  next. 

8.  False  Reading  of  Poetry. — Few  can  read  poetry  well. 
We  need  no  better  illustration  of  this  than  is  afibrded  in 
the  reading  of  hymns.  Why  any  one  in  reading  a  hymn 
aloud  should  pause  at  the  end  of  every  line  and  utter  the 
last  line  of  the  stanza  so  differently  from  the  others,  is 
something  hard  to  answer.     Indeed,  it  has  no  answer. 

The  chief  faults  in  the  reading  of  poetry  are — 

1.  A  monotonous  drawl,  with  the  measure  made  ex- 
cessively and  painfully  distinct  on  every  line  of  a  stanza 
except  the  last,  where  the  voice  is  suddenly  permitted  to 
j^lide  into  an  unnatural  cadence. 

2.  Too  rapid  utterance,  so  that  the  effect  is  lost  on  the 
hearer. 

3.  A  mechanical  observance  of  pauses  without  respect 
to  the  meaning  to  be  expressed. 

4.  A  chanting  tone,  producing  on  the  hearer  the  effect 
of  a  mock  solemnity. 

5.  A  plain  articulation,  which,  though  it  brings  out 


120  METHODS   OF  TEACHING. 

the  meaning,  does  not  show  the  beauty  of  movement 
and  rhythm  nor  indicate  the  sentiment  expressed  by 
the  language. 

Poetry  should  be  read  naturally,  and  yet  the  movement 
should  be  sueh  as  to  produce  a  pleasing^  effect  on  the  mind 
of  the  hearer,  with  an  exactness  of  time  and  accent  that 
will  indicate  the  meter  without  making  it  prominent. 

9.  Mannerisms. — It  is  one  of  the  unfortunate  features 
of  the  modern  teaching  of  reading  that  pupils  catch  the 
mannerisms  of  their  teachers.  Instead  of  reading  natu- 
rally,- the  impression  seems  to  be  that  the  reader  or  the 
so-called  elocutionist  must  mouth  and  rant  and  dwell  on 
the  vocal  sounds  as  if  all  of  eloquence  depended  on  the 
noise  one  can  make.  He  who  can  make  the  most  grimaces 
and  perform  the  most  dextrous  feats  of  vocal  gymnastics 
seems  to  catch  the  ears  of  the  groundlings,  but  why  he 
should  be  called  a  good  reader  no  one  seems  to  know. 

Many  of  these  mannerisms  are  simply  ridiculous.  One 
would  think,  from  the  dramatic  effect  which  so  many  at- 
tempt to  produce,  that  all  life  is  a  tragedy ;  but  much  of 
this  style  of  reading  is  so  comically  defective  as  to  result 
in  a  mere  farce.  Unfortunately,  these  mannerisms  are 
all  found  in  the  high  art  of  reading,  and  are  in  uearly 
all  cases  the  copies  of  old  masters,  and  there  is  but  little 
hope  of  ever  correcting  them  except  by  the  merciless  lash 
of  criticism. 

.10.  Unimpassioned  Reading. — An  equally  serious  fault 
is  that  of  readino;  all  literature  as  if  emotion  never  en- 
tered  into  reading  at  all.  It  is  not  enough  that  we  read 
undcrstandingly  and  intelligibly  :  we  must  read  imjires- 
Bivelv.  We  must  so  read  that  the  emotions  of  the  author 
may  be  expressed  to  others,  and  that  their  minds  may  be 


READING.  121 

affected  by  the  beauty  of  the  sentiment  or  the  de[)th  of 
feeling  which  stirs  and  controls  our  own. 

Rules  for  Reading. 

Of  these  it  may  be  said  that  they  have  been  productive 
of  little  good,  i^articularly  in  the  primary  department, 
for  the  simple  reason  that  they  are  in  general  beyond 
the  comprehension  of  the  pupil.  Such  rules  as  require 
specific  pauses  to  be  made  according  to  the  punctuation- 
marks  in  a  sentence  are  incorrect  in  general,  and  there- 
fore valueless.  In  order  to  apply  the  rule  governing  the 
reading  of  a  piece — as,  for  instance,  that  we  shall  deter- 
mine the  standard  of  force  by  the  general  spirit  of  the 
piece — it  requires  a  knowledge  of  granmiatical  construc- 
tion, rhetorical  expression,  and  good  judgment  in  deter- 
mining the  general  effect  to  be  produced,  which  the  or- 
dinary child  does  not  possess,  and  which  many  an  elocu- 
tionist has  longed  for  hopelessly. 

The  Teacher  of  Reading  should  be  a  thorough  scholar 
Xo  one  needs  a  broader  knowledsre  of  the  wide  field  of 
literature  than  does  the  teacher.  He  should  be  well 
versed  in  biography,  geography,  and  history,  and  thus 
be  able  to  explain  all  historical  or  mythological  allusions. 
The  reading-class  may  be  made  the  most  interesting:  in 
the  school,  for  here  is  afforded  the  best  possible  oppor- 
tunity for  literary  culture.  Here  moral  lessons  may  be 
given  in  such  an  effective  way  as  is  permitted  in  no 
other  recitation.  Here  the  ])upil  may  be  taught  to 
appreciate  not  only  beauty  of  expression,  but  also 
depth  of  sentiment,  and  the  foundation  bo  laid  for  sub- 
seq-ient  culture  of  the  most  valuable  and  profitable  kind. 


CHAPTER   II. 
The   Alphabet. 

AVhatevek  method  of  teaching  reading  may  be  ])iir- 
6ued,  a  knowledge  of  the  alphabet  must  necessarily  be 
acquired  by  tiie  child.  It  is  impossible  for  it  to  re- 
member any  great  number  of  word-forms.  The  written 
or  printed  characters  which  we  call  "the  alphabet"  are 
also  the  representatives  of  sounds,  and  a  knowledge  of 
them  is  necessary  on  this  account.  They  are  of  coui-se 
arbitrary  forms,  but,  after  all,  it  is  much  easier  to  teach 
these  forms  than  it  would  be  to  teach  all  the  words  used 
by  a  child  in  its  reading  and  in  its  conversation  Avith 
its  fellows. 

The  alphabet  is  a  system  of  characters  which  are  used 
to  represent  the  elementary  sounds  of  a  language.  The 
word  is  derived  from  the  first  two  letters  of  the  Greek 
alphabet,  alpha  and  beta,  though  it  comes  to  us  from 
the  Latin  alphabdum. 

The  English  alphabet  consists  of  twenty-six  letters. 
Kothing  is  definitely  known  as  to  the  origin  of  these 
characters  or  their  names.  The  English  language  received 
them  from  the  Latin,  but  it  is  held  by  many  that,  after 
all,  the  characters  are  mere  modifications  of  the  Phoe- 
nician characters,  and  that  the  .Phoenicians  in  turn  bor- 
rowed them  from  the  Egyptians.  The  characters  them- 
selves have  not  only  beeu  considerably  modified,  but 
there  have  also  been  a  number  of  additions  made. 


122 


THE    ALPHABET.  123 

111  learning  the  English  alphabet  it  is  necessary  that 
the  chihl  shall  be  able  to  distinguish  the  various  forms, 
that  it  shall  be  able  to  name  the  letters,  and  that  it  shall 
be  able  to  associate  the  name  with  the  form.  ^VJiatever 
methods  will  secure  these  results  most  readily  are  the  best. 

I.   Methods  of  Teaching  the  Alphabet. 

The  two  chief  plans  or  methods  by  whicli  children 
may  be  taught  the  alphabet  are  the  A  B  C  Method, 
which  be<2;ins  bv  teachino;  the  letters  themselves,  and 
the  Word  Method,  which  bes^ins  with  words.  The  first 
proceeds  from  letters  to  words,  the  second  from  words 
to  letters.  Both  methods  have  strong  advocates  among 
good  teachers.  All  methods,  by  whatever  name  they 
mav  be  knoM-n,  are  but  modifications  of  these. 

1.  The  A  B  C  Method. 

Formerly,  this  was  the  only  method  known,  and  it 
Avas  a  method  almost  Avithout  variation.-  Children  came 
to  the  teacher's  knee  one  at  a  time,  and  proceeded  at  the 
teacher's  dictation  to  call  the  roll  from  A  to  Z ;  or,  as 
B.  F.  Taylor  graphically  expresses  it  in  his  poem  of 
Tlxe   Old  School-house,  the  boy  stood   with 

"  Frightened  hair  nil  blown  about, 

J3uttered  lips  in  lialf  a  pout, 

Knucicle  boring  out  an  eye, 

Saving   'P'   and  thinking   'pie;' 

Feeling  for  a  speckled  bean, 

'Twixt  each  breatli  a  dumb  ravine ; 

IJke  clock  unwound,  but  going  yet. 

He  shnvly  ticks  the  alphabet* 
'  A-ah  -B-ah— C-ah— D,' 

Finds  the  bean  and  calls  for  'EI'" 


124  METHODS    OF    TEACH INO. 

The  usual  variation  of  this  method  was  that  of  be- 
ginning at  the  other  end  of  the  Hne  and  calling  the  let- 
ters from  Zto  A,  when  the  pupil  retired  to  his  seat  to 
make  room  for  some  equally  anxious  learner.  By  this 
process  the  teacher  was  fortunate  who  succeeded  in  teach- 
ing the  alphabet  in  a  single  winter  term.  Pupils  learned 
the  names  long  before  they  were  able  to  associate  them 
with  the  characters  which  they  represented,  and  it  was 
no  uncommon  sight  to  see  the  child  repeating  the  letters 
in  measured  tone  while  it  looked  in  an  abstracted  sort 
of  way  out  of  the  window  or  kept  watching  the  expres- 
sion of  tiie  teacher's  countenance. 

By  the  ABC  Method  the  alphabet  may  be  taught 
from  the  blackboard,  with  cards,  from  a  book,  or  with 
blocks. 

The  Blackboard  Method. — In  this  method  the  teacher 
prints  on  the  blackboard,  for  the  first  lesson,  a  few  of 
the  forms  most  readily  remembered,  such  as  o,  s,  x,  etc. 
Pie  then  calls  the  attention  of  the  learners  to  the  pecu- 
liarities of  these  forms;  and  it  will  do  no  harm  to  have 
the  children  liken  the  forms  to  objects  with  which  they 
are  familiar,  if  this  will  tend  to  arouse  interest  in  the 
work. 

The  pupils  should  then  be  required  to  draw  the  forms 
on  the  board,  making  them  as  neat  as  possible,  and  wherc- 
ever  errors  are  made  the  teacher  should  show  the  children 
how  they  may  be  corrected.  After  the  pupils  have  re- 
turned to  their  seats  they  may  be  requested  to  copy  the 
forms  on  their  slates,  and  at  the  next  recitation  the  teacher 
should  review  the  letters  previously  taught  and  add  one  or 
two  more. 

As  soon  as  possible  the  pupils  may  be  taught  that  these 


THE   ALrnABET.  125 

letters  combined  form  words.  Thu?,  when  o  and  x  have 
been  taught,  let  the  letters  be  printed  together  to  form 
ox;  and  when  a  new  letter  is  added,  as/,  let  the  pupil 
form  the  new  word,  fox.  In  a  very  few  days  the  ex- 
ercise will  become  interesting  to  him,  and  the  matter  of 
teacliing  the  alphabet  will  be  rendered  very  much  easier. 
The  process  may  thus  be  continued  until  the  pupil 
knows  the  whole  alphabet,  leaving  for  the  last  sucli  let- 
ters as  are  similar  in  form,  and  therefore  Avhose  differ- 
ences are  not  readily  distinguished.  The  chief  of  these 
are  the  letters  ?i  and  u,  h,  d,p,  and  q,  all  of  which  may  be 
tauc-ht  more  readilv  bv  this  method  than  bv  anv  other. 

The  Card  Method. — This  method  does  not  differ  mate- 
rially from  the  Blackboard  Method.  The  letters,  instead 
of  being  printed  on  the  board  by  the  teacher,  are  already 
found  on  the  card  if  properly  constructed,  and  the  pupil 
is  taught  as  before  to  recognize  a  few  of  the  simplest 
forms,  also  their  names,  and  then  associate  the  names 
with  the  forms. 

The  pupil  should,  as  an  interesting  exercise,  be  per- 
mitted to  search  for  such  other  forms  on  the  card  as  he 
has  already  been  taught.  Tlius,  if  he  has  been  taught 
to  recognize  and  name  o,  place  the  pointer  in  his  hand 
and  let  him  point  to  the  letter,  then  to  another  o,  then 
to  another,  and  so  on,  until  he  recognizes  the  letter 
wherever  he  finds  it.  As  a  variation  of  the  exercise,  let 
several  of  the  pupils  pass  to  the  card  together,  and,  hav- 
intr  placed  a  pointer  in  the  hand  of  each,  let  them  strive  to 
excel  one  another  in  their  efforts  to  find  the  letter  named 
bv  the  teacher.  Pupils  will  become  quite  interested  and 
excited  in  a  contest  of  this  kind,  and  under  the  care  of  a 
judicious  teacher  they  will  make  rapid  progress. 


126  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

The  Block  Method.— By  this  metliod  the  pnpils  become 
acquainted  with  the  letter-forms  as  they  find  them  printed 
on  blocks.  It  is  an  excellent  means  of  making  pupils  ac- 
quainted with  the  alphabet  at  home,  where  the  blocks  may 
be  used  in  the  children's  plays. 

The  blocks  may  also  be  divided  into  sections,  and  the 
pupils  be  permitted  to  exercise  their  ingenuity  in  coni- 
bininsr  these  so  as  to  form  the  letters  correctly.  This 
is  particularly  true  of  such  letters  as  b,  p,  q,  and  d.  The 
children  in  this  way  become  acquainted  with  the  furms  as 
a  part  of  their  daily  play,  and  it  will  be  necessary  to  teach 
only  the  name  of  the  form. 

The  Book  Method. — This  method  proceeds,  as  in  the  Card 
Method,  to  teach  a  few  letters  at  a  time,  but  in  connection 
with  a  book  rather  than  from  cards.  The  method  docs 
not  differ  materially  from  the  Card  Method. 

The  only  advantage  claimed  for  the  method  is  that 
pupils  have  the  book  at  their  scats,  and  in  this  way 
they  may  examine  the  letters  while  not  reciting,  and 
copy  them  on  their  slates  without  constantly  referring 
to  the  blackboard. 

There  is  but  little  objection  to  the  use  of  the  book 
if  it  be  taken  in  connection  with  the  Card  or  the  Black- 
board Method,  but  if  the  book  alone  is  to  be  depended 
upon,  this  method  is  the  least  valuable  of  all  the  ABC 
methods. 

2.  The  Word  Method. 

The  ABC  Method  of  teaching  the  alphabet  is  essen- 
tially synthetic,  while  the  Word  Method  is  analytic.  The 
latter  begins  with  words  as  Avholes,  and  resolves  these  intc 
the  letters  of  which  they  are  composed. 


THE    ALPHABET.  127 

Tlie  ^9?(m  of  the  AYord  Method  is  as  follows :  An  ob- 
ject, as  a  hat,  is  selected,  and  a  lesson  is  given,  as  ex- 
plained in  the  Object  Method  of  teaching  reading.  After 
the  child  once  recognizes  the  word-form,  he  is  taught  to 
pronounce  the  word  in  imitation  of  the  teacher,  then  he 
names  the  letters  of  the  word  as  the  teacher  pronounces 
them,  and  tiien  names  them  without  the  teacher's  assist- 
ance, and  points  to  them  as  he  names  them,  until  finally 
he  is  able  to  point  to  the  individual  letters  as  called  for 
promiscuously  by  the  teacher. 

A  number  of  pictures  which  contain  the  principal 
letters  of  the  alphabet  may  be  presented,  and  from  these 
may  be  taught  first  the  names,  and  then  the  letters  of 
which  these  names  are  composed.  The  following  words, 
the  names  of  objects,  may  be  used  in  the  manner  indi- 
cated :  cat,  dog,  fox,  kite,  cow,  quill,  man,  boy,  jug,  hive, 
sheep,  zebra. 

After  each  of  the  letters  has  been  taught  by  these 
picture  word-lessons,  a  further  series  of  lessons  may  be 
given  on  words,  the  names  of  objects,  to  the  extent  of 
sixty  or  more,  until  the  pupil  has  learned  to  distinguish 
the  letters  readily  at  sight. 

The  i)lan  suggested  in  the  ABC  Method,  of  hav- 
ing the  pujuls  write  the  words  on  their  slates,  should 
of  course  be  practiced  in  connection  with  the  Word 
Method. 

The  chief  advantages  claimed  for  the  Word  jNIethod 
of  teaching  the  alphabet  are — 

1.  TJiat  it  is  Interesting. — The  word  which  it  is  desired 
to  teach  may  be  introduced  by  a  short  and  interesting 
conversation  with  reference  to  the  object  which  the  word 
represents.    Pupils  ■s'vill  be  eager  to  learn  the  word-forms 


128  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

which  represent  the  names  of  these  objects,  and  equallj 
anxious  to  learn  the  letters  -which  compose  these  words. 

2.  It  is  the  Natural  Method. — In  learning  to  talk  the 
child  first  becomes  acquainted  with  words.  These  he 
uses  as  he  hears  them  used  by  others,  and  he  learns  to 
associate  certain  words  with  certain  objects,  actions,  qual- 
ities, etc.  The  transition  from  spoken  words  to  written 
words  is  both  easy  and  natural,  and  this,  therefore,  seems 
to  be  the  natural  method  of  procedure  in  teaching. 

3.  It  Aids  PupHs  in  Learning  to  Pronounce. — This  is 
particularly  true  when  the  picture  can  be  used  with  the 
word.  But,  independent  of  the  picture,  the  child  learns 
to  recognize  words,  to  some  extent  at  least,  as  he  learns 
to  recognize  his  playmates — not  by  analyzing  them,  but 
by  their  general  form  and  appearance. 

II.  Suggestions  on  Teaching  the  Alphabet. 

1.  Teach  the  small  letters  first.  The  pupils  usually 
learn  the  capitals  readily  while  using  the  small  letters 
in  copying  words  and  sentences. 

2.  Teach,  as  far  as  possible,  the  names  and  the  sounds 
of  letters  at  the  same  time. 

3.  Let  the  lessons  in  teaching  the  alphabet  be  short — 
not  more  than  ten  minutes  at  most  for  a  single  lesson. 

4.  Let  the  pupils  who  are  learning  the  alphabet  recite 
in  classes.     The  competition  is  valuable. 

5.  The  number  in  the  alphabet-class  should  be  limited 
to  ten  at  most.  A  larger  number  are  likely  to  be  either 
listless  or,  if  attentive,  too  boisterous. 

6.  Teach  i)upils  to  recognize  words  as  wholes  and  call 
them  at  sight.  This  will  aid  them  greatly  in  learning 
to  read. 


THE   ALPHABET.  129 

7.  Combine  all  the  methods  in  teaching  the  alphabet 
if  you  are  able  to  create  most  interest  in  this  way. 

8.  See  that  pupils  in  copying  words  use  good-sized 
pencils,  so  that  they  may  not  contract  such  im])roper 
habits  in  the  manner  of  holding  the  pen  as  may  require 
years  of  training  to  correct. 

9.  Teach  children  the  script  letters  as  soon  as  possible, 
that  they  may  write  their  lessons  instead  of  printing  tlicm 
on  their  slates. 

10.  Put  a  book  in  the  hands  of  a  pupil  occasionally, 
and  let  him  select  letters  at  the  teacher's  dictation. 

11.  Do  not  waste  any  time  in  attempting  to  teach  a 
pupil  all  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  before  you  permit 
him  to  read.  Put  him  to  reading  at  the  earliest  possible 
moment,  in  order  that  he  may  become  interested  and  see 
for  himself  that  he  is  making  progress. 

12.  In  teaching  by  the  Word  Method  use  first  such 
forms  as  represent  objects,  and,  if  you  are  able  to  draw, 
make  a  picture  on  the  board,  and  beneath  this  place  the 
the  name  of  the  object. 

13.  Teach  such  letters  as  j),  6,  q,  and  c?,  also  c  and  c, 
u  and  n,  by  showing  to  the  pupils  how  these  forms  differ 
and  in  what  respects  they  are  similar. 

14.  If  you  can  gather  a  suflficient  number  of  blocks 
-VN'ith  letters  pasted  on  them,  let  the  pupils  spell  words 
by  laying  the  blocks  in  proper  order  one  after  another. 

15.  Let  pupils  be  taught  the  letters  both  promiscu- 
ously and  in  their  proper  order — the  first,  that  they 
may  distinguish  tliem  anywdiere;  the  second,  in  order 
that  they  may  be  able  to  consult  any  book  or  index 
arranged  alphabetically. 

9 


CHAPTER  III. 

Oethogeaphy. 

Orthogiiaphy  (from  the  Greek  ortJios,  riglit,  and 
graphein,  to  write)  means,  literally,  to  write  right.  It 
thus  represents  a  proper  writing  of  the  words  of  a  lan- 
guage. It  is  in  reality  a  representation  of  spoken  lan- 
guage by  written  or  printed  characters,  which  had  its 
origin  in  picture-writing  or  hieroglyphics.  It  may  bo 
stat£!d  here  that  some  languages  even  yet — notably  the 
Chinese — continue  to  employ  picture  characters  rather 
than  letters  to  express  the  words  of  the  language.  The 
characters  in  the  English  language  are  entirely  arbitrary, 
having  no  connection  with  the  names  they  bear  or  the 
sounds  they  are  used  to  represent. 

I.  The  Importance  of  Learning  to  Spell. 

It  is  im])ortant  to  learn  to  sj)ell  well.  Accurate  schol- 
arship and  habits  of  close  observation  may  in  many  cases 
be  judged  by  one's  spelling.  To  say  that  many  thor- 
oughly educated  persons  are  poor  spellers  is  neither  a 
compliment  to  their  scholarship  nor  is  it  a  correct  state- 
ment. The  man  whose  close  and  critical  observation 
trains  him  to  distinguish  differences  in  color,  form,  etc. 
is  equally  critical  with  reference  to  the  spelling  of  the 

130 


ORTtlOGKAniY.  131 

words  he  writes,  if  his  culture  of  perception,  particular- 
ly as  regards  form,  is  worthy  of  the  name.  The  man 
who  accurately  distinguishes  form  in  crystals,  flowers, 
petals,  sepals,  etc.  ought  to  distinguish  it  in  words,  un- 
less his  culture  is  altogether  one-sided. 

It  may  be  true  that  many  over-estimate  the  importance 
of  being  able  to  spell  well,  but  certainly  there  are  few 
poor  spellers  whom  we  would  be  willing  to  acce])t  as  the 
representatives  of  thorough  scholarship  or  as  reliable  au- 
thority on  most  other  branches  of  study.'  As  Dr.  Currie 
has  expressed  it,  "  The  possession  procures  no  credit,  but 
the  want  of  it  entails  disgrace."  That  is,  there  may  be 
many  who  make  a  hobby  of  spelling,  while  they  know 
but  little  else,  but  there  are  few  that  spell  poorly  whose 
Bcliolarship  would  be  accepted  as  authority  on  other  sub- 
jects. 

It  is  frequently  claimed  that  men  a  half  century  ago 
were  much  better  spellers  than  are  we  of  the  present. 
In  reply  to  this  it  might  be  said.  They  ought  to  have 
been,  because  then  the  school-course  of  study  was  very 
limited,  consisting  usually  of  spelling,  reading,  writing, 
and  arithmetic  only,  and  the  number  of  words  then  used 
was  also  much  smaller  than  at  present.  But  the  proof 
does  not  exist  that  our  predecessors  were  better  spellers 
on  the  average  than  the  children  of  to-day.  If  a  prac- 
tical test  were  desired,  it  might  be  profitable  to  have  a 
number  of  ladies  and  gentlemen,  products  of  the  public 
schools  of  but  forty  years  ago,  enter  into  a  contest  with  a 
similar  number  of  young  men  and  women  of  to-day  in  a 
written  exercise,  the  only  true  test.  Alas !  what  might 
the  result  not  be ! 


132  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

2.  Difficulties  in  the  Way  of  Teaching  Orthography. 

The  difficulties  in  the  way  of  teaching  English  orthog- 
raphy are  greater  than  those  encountered  in  teaching  the 
ortho^rapliy  of  any  other  language.  These  difficulties 
account  for  the  fact  that  pupils  in  studying  English  do 
not  make  such  rapid  progress  frequently  as  is  made  by 
pupils  in  studying  French,  German,  and  other  languages. 
Indeed,  orthoirraphv  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  studies 
that  the  student  of  English  is  called  upon  to  pursue,  and 
the  si'cater  number  of  failures  in  this  branch  than  in 
others  in  all  competitive  examinations  is  strong  proof 
of  the  fact. 

The  principal  difficulty  encountered  in  learning  the 
spelling  of  English  lies  in  the  fact  that  our  language  is  a 
composite  one,  derived  from  almost  every  other  spoken  lan- 
guage. Words  are  introduced  from  the  tongue  of  almost 
every  nationality  with  which  cither  England  or  America 
has  had  intercourse.  Thus  we  have  obtained  bouquet, 
ehtUeau,  depot  from  the  French ;  cofce,  cipher,  assassin 
from  the  Arabic;  embargo,  coyote,  caste  from  the  Spanish; 
Tcnave,  waltz  from  the  German  ;  amen,  cherub,  seraph  from 
the  Hebrew;  tobacco,  opossum,  moccasin  from  the  Indian; 
sloop,  schooner,  boor  from  the  Dutch ;  and  so  on  with  a 
large  part  of  what  we  now  call  English.  The  basis 
of  our  language  is  the  Anglo-Saxon,  to  M'hich  have 
been  added  words  largely  taken  from  the  Norman 
French,  the  Latin,  the  Greek,  etc.  Thus,  in  learning 
to  spell  modern  English  we  necessarily  learn  to  spell,  to 
some  extent  at  least,  almost  every  language  from  which 
we  have  apj)ropriated  words. 

i\Iost  of  the  irregularities  of  our  language  arise  from 


OKTHOGRAPHY.  133 

the  composite  character  of  English.  Some  arise  from  the 
use  of  silent  letters,  some  from  the  fact  that  our  language 
is  not  phonetic,  and  some  from  the  fact  that  often  a  com- 
bination may  be  pronounced  in  various  ways,  as  au  iu 
gauge,  maid,  etc. 

There  was  a  time  in  the  history  of  English  when  all 
spelling  seems  to  have  been  irregular.  It  is  said,  for 
instance,  that  the  word  it  was  spelled  also  yt,  ytf,  hit,  hiti, 
itt,  hyt,  hytt.  We  have  made  much  improvement  on  the 
condition  of  spelling  at  that  time,  and  yet  the  number 
of  words  found  in  the  standard  dictionaries  of  to-day 
in  which  the  spelling  is  various,  as  in  theatre,  theater, 
defence,  defense,  etc.,  is  said  to  be  about  four  thousand. 

3.  Methods  of  Recitation. 

There  are  properly  two  methods  of  conducting  a  reci- 
tation in  orthography — the  Oral  and  the  ]Vrifien.  These 
have  been  called  methods  of  teaching,  but  improperly  so. 
Oue  depends  on  the  sense  of  hearing,  and  the  other  on 
that  of  sight,  to  determine  the  proper  form  of  the  word. 

1.  The  Oral  Method. 

The  Oral  ]\[ethod  is  that  in  which  the  pupil  names 
the  letters  orally  in  the  order  in  Mhicli  they  are  found  in 
the  word.  In  preparing  the  lesson  the  pupil  memorizes 
the  order  in  which  the  letters  are  placed,  associating  the 
sound  to  some  extent  with  the  letters  themselves. 

Advantages  of  the  Oral  Method. — The  following  are 
claimed  as  the  chief  advantages  of  the  Oral  Method : 

1.  Pupils  are  taught  to  jironounce  words  while  learn- 
ing to  spell  them. 


134:  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

2.  They  also  acquire  facility  and  readiness  in  the 
syllabication  of  words. 

3.  Time  is  sometimes  saved  by  spelling  orally. 

Disadvantages  of  tlie  Oral  Method. — Among  the  chief 
disadvantasres  of  the  Oral  Method  of  recitation  are  the 
following: 

1.  Pupils  who  spell  well  orally  do  not  always  spell 
correctly  by  the  Written  Method. 

2.  The  principal  value  of  spelling  is  its  application  in 
writing;  this  value  is  lost  in  oral  spelling. 

3.  The  number  of  words  spelled  by  each  pupil  by 
the  Oral  ^Method  is  not  so  great  as  that  by  the  Written 
Method.      ■ 

The  Oral  ^lethod  is  the  one  which  has  been  pursued 
for  centuries,  and  its  chief  merit  lies  in  its  age,  though 
there  are  times  Mhen,  for  the  sake  of  creating  interest 
or  varietv  in  recitation,  it  may  be  well  to  conduct  a 
recitation  in  orthography  orally. 

Variations  of  the  Oral  Method. 

1.  Position  of  Pupils. — The  pupils  having  been  called 
to  class,  they  may  be  required  either  to  sit  or  to  stand. 
If  what  is  usually  known  as  the  "  trapping  system  "  is 
pursued,  where  the  post  of  honor  is  the  head  of  the 
cla.«s,  it  is  better  to  have  the  class  stand,  but  always  in 
as  graceful  a  position  as  possible,  and  as  nearly  in  a 
Ktraiirht  line  as  mav  be  convenient.  The  teacher  should 
then  place  himself  in  such  a  ])osition  that  he  may  com- 
mand the  eye  of  every  child  in  the  class. 

2.  Assignment  of  Words. — The  method  of  assignment 


OKTIIOGEAPHY.  135 

"will  depend  somewhat  on  tlie  system  pursued.  If  the 
trapphig  system  be  not  pursued,  but  little  need  be  said 
as  to  the  manner  of  assignment ;  but  if  the  trapping 
svstem  be  used,  then  care  must  be  taken  that  pupils  do 
not  anticipate  the  teacher's  method  of  assignment.  The 
methods  of  assignment  are  various;  the  following  arc 
the  chief: 

Fromiscuous  Assignment. — By  the  promiscuous  method 
the  teacher  may  begin  the  assignment  of  words  at  the 
foot  of  the  first  column  and  proceed  upward  ;  the  next 
dav,  by  besfinnino;  at  the  last  column  :  then  bv  passing 
across  the  page  from  side  to  side,  then  again  by  going 
diagonally  across,  then  down  the  columns,  then  up  and 
down  alternately,  varying  the  method  nearly  every  day, 
so  that  the  pupils  may  not  anticipate  the  method  of  pro- 
cedure and  prepare  themselves  accordingly. 

Pupils'  Assignment. — Sometimes  it  will  be  profitable 
to  permit  such  pupils  as  have  held  the  post  of  honor 
the  greatest  number  of  times  during  the  mouth  to  take 
the  place  of  the  teacher  for  a  day  or  two  in  assigning 
words;  this  as  a  reward  for  good  work.  The  teacher 
must  of  course  hold  himself  in  readiness  to  support  the 
pupil  so  honored  in  case  he  get  into  difficulty. 

3,  Attention  to  Mistakes. — The  method  of  spelling 
may  be  varied  by  the  teacher's  passing  to  the  next 
word  when  one  has  been  incorrectly  spelled,  requiring 
the  pupils  to  notice  and  make  all  corrections;  or  he 
may  pass  the  same  Avord  to  the  next  pupil,  showing 
thus  that  it  was  incorrectly  spelled.  By  the  former 
method  the  attention  of  the  pupils  is  held  more  closely, 
as  the  one  who  detects  the  error  and  makes  the  correction 
first  should  be  entitled  to  take  the  pla^ie  of  the  one  who 


J  36  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

first  inisscd  the  word,  or  the  head  of  the  class,  if  it  passed 
by  the  head  without  being  detected. 

This  metliod  may  be  varied  also  by  the  teacher's 
assitruing:  the  same  word  several  times  in  succession, 
though  it  )nay  have  been  spelled  correctly  the  first 
time.  This  plan  not  only  keeps  a  class  attentive,  but 
it  also  makes  each  pupil  decide  according  to  his  actual 
opinion. 

Cautions  on  Oral  Spelling. 

1.  Do  not  give  more  than  one  trial  in  oral  spelling. 
All  trials  after  the  first  are  liable  to  be  mere  guesses. 

2.  Do  not  pronounce  the  loord  more  than  once  to  the 
class.  It  is  the  pupil's  business  to  be  attentive  and  hear 
the  first  time  the  word  is  pronounced.  An  exception 
should  be  made  to  this  caution  only  when  the  pupil 
was  prevented  from  hearing  by  some  unavoidable 
noise. 

3.  Do  not  mispronounce  loonh  to  assist  pupils  in  spelling 
them.  Pronounce  each  word  as  it  would  be  pronounced 
in  good  reading  or  correct  conversation.  Do  hot  say 
an-l-mate,  sep-d-rate,  etc.  more  distinctly  than  you 
would  in  reading  these  word's. 

4.  Do  not  permit  pupils  to  use  unnatural  tones  in  spell- 
ing.  The  tendency  is  to  pitch  the  voice  too  high  and 
spell  too  loud. 

5.  Do  not  permit  pnipils  to  spell  words  in  the  order  in 
which  they  have  studied  them.  The  writer  has  seen  pupils 
to  the  number  of  ten  or  more  spell  the  words  of  the  jook 
without  the  teacher's  doing  more  than  saying  to  the  pupil 
at  the  head  of  the  class,  "  Mary,  you  may  spell  the  first 
word  ;"  and  the  teacher  thought  he  was  doing  good  work. 
When  wor-Js  are  spelled  in  the  order  in  whit  h  they  are 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  137 

found  in  the  book,  pupils  arc  ajit  to  coniir.it  to  memory 
only  such  as  they  expect  to  spell. 

6.  Have  pvpils  pronounce  hcfnre  Kpeliing  a  word.  This 
will  show  whether  they  know  \\  hat  the  word  is,  and  pre- 
vent the  excuse  so  often  given,  that  they  did  not  under- 
stand the  word. 

7.  Require  the  pupil  to  pronounce  each  syllable  coiTectly. 
Thus,  in  the  word  liniment  have  him  spell  \t  I  i  n  {tin)  i 
(T)  m  e  n  t  {mSnt),  and  then  pronounce  the  word  as  a 
whole.  As  to  whether  he  should  go  back  each  time 
and  repronounce  all  the  previously  pronounced  sylla- 
bles in  connection  with  the  last  one  added,  is  a  matter 
which  has  been  much  discussed  on  both  sides.  Some 
have  claimed  that  to  repronounce  each  time  gives  cul- 
ture to  the  vocal  powers,  but  it  seems  to  be  a  good  deal 
of  work  to  secure  a  small  result. 

8.  Do  not  require  pupils  to  commit  to  memory  all  the 
v)ords  of  the  lesson.  Select  those  that  are  most  difficult 
and  most  likely  to  be  misspelled. 

9.  Have  an  occasional  spelling -match  to  keep  up 
variety  and  interest,  but  be  careful  that  pupils  are 
not  permitted  to  tease  one  another  after  the  match 
has  been  concluded. 

10.  Require  pupils  to  spell  phonically  also.  This  will 
train  them  to  utter  the  elementary  sounds  correctly,  and 
teach  them  to  recognize  what  letters  in  a  word  are  silent. 

2.  The  Written  Method. 

The  "Written  Method  of  recitation  is  that  in  which 
the  pu])il  writes  on  slate,  pa])er,  or  blackboard  the 
letters  of  a  word  in  their  projicr  order.  In  preparing 
the  lesson  the  pupil  regards  not  so  much  the  sound  as 


138  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

tlie  form  of  the  word.  The  sense  of  sight  is  di>pended 
upon  as  the  main  power  by  which  the  child  acquires  a 
knowledge  of  the  word,  and  on  this  form  as  impressed 
on  the  mind  he  relies  for  his  ability  to  reproduce  the 
W'ord  with  all  its  elements  correctly  arranged. 

Advantages  of  the  Written  Method. — The  chief  advan- 
tages of  the  Written  Method  of  recitation  in  spelling  are 
the  following: 

1.  We  learn  to  spell  more  readily  by  sight  than  by 
sound.  The  form  of  the  word-picture  is  more  readily 
impressed  upon  the  mind  and  more  readily  reproduced. 

2.  Pupils  are  required  in  their  life-work  to  use  spelling 
almost  wholly  by  writing.  They  arc  rarely  called  upon 
to  spell  orally,  but  even  the  letters  they  write  require 
them  to  reproduce  words  by  writing,  and  not  orally. 

3.  Pupils  are  enabled  to  spell  a  much  greater  number 
of  words  durinor  a  recitation  than  bv  the  Oral  Method. 

4.  All  pupils  are  kept  busily  employed,  and  the  atten- 
tion of  all  is  held  by  this  method. 

5.  Pupils  are  enabled  to  examine  the  misspelled  words, 
detect  tlie  errors,  and  make  the  proper  cori'ection. 

6.  Written  spelling  is  a  more  accurate  test  of  scholarship. 

Disadvantages  of  the  Written  Method. — The  only  serious 
disadvantage  of  the  Written  Method  of  recitation  is  that 
more  time  is  usually  required  to  conduct  a  recitation;  but 
even  this  objection  may  be  shown  to  have  no  force  when 
we  take  into  consideration  the  fact  that  in  oral  spelling 
but  few  pupils  receive  any  great  number  of  Avords  each. 
If  the  teacher  were  to  select  ten  or  fifteen  of  the  most 
difficult  words  in   the  lesson,  and  require  these  to  be 


ORXnOGRAPIIY.  139 

written,  lie  M-(n;l<:l  do  much  more  good  than  by  spelling 
a  larger  number  orally,  and  be  able  to  do  the  work  in  a 
gliorter  period  of  time. 

Variations  of  the  Written  Method. 

The  recitation  by  the  Written  Method  may  be  con- 
ducted on  the  blackboard  or  slates,  or  by  the  use  of 
bjank-books. 

1.  The  Blackboard  Method. — By  this  method  the  pupils 
are  required  to  pass  to  the  blackboard,  and,  after  having 
erased  any  work  remaining  from  a  previous  recitation,  di- 
vide the  space  into  sections  by  drawing  vertical  lines  by 
which  to  separate  their  work  from  that  of  their  neighbors. 

In  writing  the  words  on  the  board  the  whole  class  may 
write  each  word  as  pronounced  by  the  teacher,  or  the  class 
may  be  divided  into  sections  of  twos  or  threes.  The 
pupils,  in  case  tliey  are  divided  into  sections  of  twos, 
may  begin  numbering  at  one  end  of  the  board,  calling 
out  alternately  in  order  one,  two ;  one,  two;  or  if  in  sec- 
tions of  threes,  calling  their  numbers,  one,  two,  three;  one, 
two,  tiiree;  and  so  on.  The  teacher  then  pronounces  a 
different  word  to  each  section  alternately  as  rapidly  as 
the  pujnls  can  place  them  on  the  board. 

The  Manner  of  Writing. — The  words  should  be  written 
in  vertical  columns  rather  than  across  the  board.  It  is 
best  also  to  begin  each  word  with  a  small  letter,  unless 
the  word  is  such  as  to  demand  a  capital  letter  at  all 
times,  and  it  is  well,  if  there  be  time,  to  have  the 
pu])ils  mark  the  correct  accent  of  each  word. 

A  variation  of  this  exercise  consists  in  using  the  dia- 
critical signs  and  applying  them  in  indicating  the  proper 
pronunciation  of  each  word.    The  silent  letters  may  have 


140  METHODS   OF   TEAC^I^:G^. 

a  line  drawn  either  under  them  or  through  them,  as  may 
be  agreed  upon. 

Corrections. — After  the  words  have  been  written  the 
pupils  may  be  requested  to  exchange  places,  and  each 
review  the  work  of  another  as  the  teacher  proceeds  to 
spell  the  Avords  correctlv. 

The  method  may  be  varied  by  having  each  pupil 
correct  his  own  mistakes  as  the  teacher  spells  the  words. 

A  second  variation  consists  in  having  one  of  the 
pu])ils  spell  the  words  for  his  section  from  the  work 
before  him  on  the  board,  the  teacher  being  careful  to 
guard  against  permitting  any  errors  to  pass  unnoticed. 

The  corrected  words  may  be  marked  with  a  cross  after 
them,  or  by  drawing  a  line  under  them,  or  by  placing  a 
figure,  1,  2,  etc.,  after  each. 

The  Misspelled  Words. — It  Is  a  good  plan  for  both  the 
teaclier  and  the  pupils  to  keep  a  list  of  the  misspelled 
words,  or  at  least  those  misspelled  by  the  majority  of 
the  class.  These  may  be  made  the  subject  of  a  review 
lesson,  and  those  which  are  specially  likely  to  be  mis- 
spelled may  be  called  up  frequently  until  the  pupils  are 
no  longer  likely  to  misspell  them. 

The  advantage  of  the  Blackboard  Method  lies  in  the 
fact  that  the  teacher  can  keep  in  sight  all  the  work  of 
the  pupils,  and  when  the  class  is  divided  into  sections  it 
is  almost  impossible  for  the  pupils  to  copy  from  one 
another  without  detection. 

The  objections  to  the  Blackboard  INIethod  are  that  in 
some  schools  there  is  not  sufficient  blackboard  surface  to 
accommodate  a  whole  class  at  the  board,  and  that  there 
is  greater  opportunity  to  copy  from  one  another  than  by 
otiier  written  methods. 


ORTHOGFvAPUY.  1-11 

2.  The  Slate  Method. — In  this  method  the  pupils  write 
their  words  on  their  slates,  as  described  in  the  Blackboard 
Method.  The  pupils  may  be  permitted  to  write  at  their 
desks,  but  it  is  better  that  they  come  forward  to  the  reci- 
tation-benches and  do  the  work  there,  as  it  prevents  their 
copying  from  slips  of  paper  or  from  their  books. 

Corrections. — At  a  signal  given  by  the  teacher  the 
2iu])ils  may  be  required  to  exchange  slates,  passing  them 
one  day  to  the  riglit  one  space,  the  next  day  to  the  left 
one  space  or  to  the  right  two  spaces,  and  thus  continually 
changing  the  order,  that  no  two  pupils  may  be  tempted 
to  make  an  agreement  not  to  correct  each  other's  words 
and  thus  deceive  the  teacher.  It  may  be  wise  to  have 
each  pupil  at  times  retain  his  own  slate  and  correct  his 
own  errors,  but  only  when  the  class  is  wholly  trust- 
worthy. 

The  chief  objections  to  the  Slate  Method  are,  first, 
that  the  teacher  has  not  the  opportunity,  or  if  the  oppor- 
tunity not  the  time,  to  examine  the  work  on  the  slates; 
and,  secondly,  that  pupils  will  sometimes  prepare  their 
lesson  on  the  slate  while  at  their  seats,  and  then  erase 
the  words  only  partially,  so  that  they  may  be  enabled  to 
copy  them  when  they  come  to  class.  This  difficulty 
may  be  avoided  by  the  teacher's  pronouncing  the  words 
promiscuously  and  not  in  the  order  of  the  book. 

3.  The  Blank-book  Method.— In  this  method  blank- 
books  prepared  for  the  purpose  are  used.  These  are 
ruled  with  each  word-space  ready  numbered,  with  addi- 
tional space  left  below  on  which  to  write  the  misspelled 
words. 

The  manner  of  wnting  the  words  is  the  same  as  in  tlie 


142  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

Blackboard  Motliod,  with  this  difference — that  if  ink  bf 
used  it  will  be  better  to  have  pupils  remain  at  their  desks 
while  writing  the  exercise. 

In  correcting  it  is  usually  best,  unless  the  class  be  very 
larfre,  for  the  teacher  to  examine  the  words  and  mark 
each  one  that  is  incorrectly  spelled ;  or  the  corrections 
mav  be  made  by  the  pupils  themselves,  as  suggested  iu 
the  other  methods.  The  misspelled  words  sh;mld  be 
written,  correctly  spelled,  iu  the  space  below,  and  thus 
a  permanent  record  will  be  kept  which  will  enable  the 
pupil  to  see  what  words  he  is  most  liable  to  misspell. 

Any  of  the  written  methods  are  valuable,  and,  in  gen- 
eral, they  are  preferable  to  the  Oral  Method  of  conduct- 
ing a  recitation  in  this  branch,  but  the  Oral  Method  will 
frequently  be  found  valuable  iu  giving  variety  to  the 
school- work. 

4.  Preparation  for  the  Recitation. 

Whatever  the  method  of  recitation  in  orthography, 
the  method  of  preparation  for  the  recitation  is  the  im- 
portant work  to  be  considered. 

All  lessons  in  orthography,  particularly  first  lessons, 
should  be  arranged  according  to  some  analogy,  in  order 
that  the  pupil  in  preparing  them  may  have  the  benefit 
of  acquiring  the  form  while  he  makes  comparisons. 
This  analogy  may  be  an  analogy  of  vowel-sound,  as  in 
man,  pan,  ran,  etc.,  or  it  may  be  an  analogy  of  termina- 
tions, a^.  in  tenable,  salable,  arable,  etc.,  or  it  may  be  both, 
as  iu  arbor,  harbor,  parlor,  etc.,  charger,  larger,  darker, 
farmer,  etc.  In  this  way  the  work  of  teaching  .spelling 
Diay  be  greatly  simplified. 

Pupils,  from  the  most  primary  to  the  most  advanced, 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  1 43 

should  be  required  to  prepare  their  lessons  by  n-riting 
them  on  their  slates.  Those  who  are  not  able  to  write 
may  be  permitted  temporarily  to  print  the  words,  bat 
writing  should  be  substituted  for  printing  as  soon  as 
possible.  This  is  the  important  part  of  the  work  in 
teaching  spelling,  for  by  this  manner  of  preparation  the 
form  is  impressed  on  the  mind  of  the  child,  and  he  at 
the  same  time  acquires  valuable  muscular  training  of 
the  hand  which  will  fit  him  for  subsequent  work  in 
both  writing  and  drawing. 

5.  General  Suggestions  on  Teaching  Spelling. 

1.  Combine  Methods.— Teachers  should  make  a  judi- 
cious combination  of  the  Oral  and  the  AYritten  Method 
of  recitation  in  spelling.  The  Oral  Method  helps  to 
secure  correct  pronunciation  and  awaken  a  lively  inter- 
est, while  the  AVritten  Method  trains  the  eve  to  rocoo-- 
nize  the  form  of  words,  and  is  the  more  practical  in  if  i 
results. 

2.  Names  of  Objects.— Give  pupils  occasional  exercise 
in  spelling  the  names  of  objects  with  Avhich  they  are 
familiar.  These  may  be  taken  in  classes  or  groups,  as 
the  names  of  domestic  animals,  the  names  of  birds,  the 
names  of  trees,  the  names  of  flowers ;  or  they  may  be 
taken  promiscuously,  as  the  names  of  objects  found  in 
the  parlor,  seen  on  the  way  to  school,  or  heard  in  pass- 
ing along  the  street.  The  teacher  should  not,  however, 
rely  on  this  as  a  general  exercise ;  nothing  is  so  reliable 
for  teaching  correct  word-forms  as  the  plan  of  grouping 
according  to  some  analogy  of  spelling  or  sound. 

3.  Geographical  Names. — With  the  advanced  classes  it 
will  be  found  a  profitable  exercise  to  spell  both  geograph- 


144  JIETHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

ical  and  biographical  names,  as  the  capes  of  the  United 
States,  the  names  of  American  poets,  English  novelists, 
or  American  historians.  The  exercise  may,  with  a  little 
help  from  the  teacher,  be  made  suggestive  and  exceed- 
ingly interesting. 

4.  Spelling  Sentences. — Vary  the  spelling  exercise  oc- 
casionally by  dictating  sentences,  and  require  pnpils  to 
spell  these.  Vary  the  exercise  by  having  pupils  select 
such  words  as  may  be  dictated  by  the  teacher,  and  incor- 
porate them  in  sentences  of  their  own  construction.  Sen- 
tences may  be  read  from  newspapers  or  interesting  books, 
and  these  be  Avritten  down  by  the  pnj)il.  Due  care  should 
of  course  be  exercised  by  the  teacher  that  the  pupils  use 
capital  letters  and  punctuation-marks  correctly,  so  far  as 
they  have  been  taught. 

5.  Pre-pronunciation. — In  assigning  the  work  for  the 
next  day  the  teacher  should  pronounce  the  lesson  for  the 
pnpils,  that  they  may  study  the  words  understand ingly. 
This  exercise  may  be  varied  by  having  the  pupils  pro- 
nounce, while  the  teacher  holds  iiimself  in  readiness  to 
correct  any  errors  made  The  exercise  may  be  varied 
also,  particularly  in  primary  classes,  by  the  teacher's 
pronouncing  the  words  and  having  the  pupils  imitate 
him. 

6.  Difficult  Words. — The  teacher  should  select  such 
words  as  are  often  misspelled,  and  give  pupils  frequent 
exercises  in  spelling  these.  Too  much  of  our  teaching 
of  spelling  has  been  valueless  because  we  have  followed 
the  textbook  too  closely  in  this  as  in  other  branches. 
Such  words  as  neither,  piece,  seize,  leisure,  many,  very, 
great,  forty,  their,  there,  until,  fulfill,  etc.,  among  the 
words  of  every-day  use,  ought  to  receive  close  attention ; 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  145 

and  thus  also  with  words  not  so  frequently  used,  such  as 
separate,  beginning,  director,  absence,  develop,  judgment,  and 
many  others. 

7.  Special  Words. — In  assigning  a  lesson  the  teacher 
should  call  attention  to  any  special  words  that  are  likely 
to  be  ruisspelled  or  that  present  any  special  difficul- 
ty. Thus,  he  may  call  the  attention  of  pupils  to  the 
fact  that  preparation,  for  instance,  is  derived  from  pre- 
2xire,  and  is  never,  therefore,  correctly  spelled  prepera- 
Hon,  as  we  so  often  tind  it.  Thus,  also  he  may  show 
that  the  basis  of  intention  is  intent,  while  that  of  inten- 
sion is  intense.  The  writer  succeeded  in  correctins;  the 
habit  in  a  young  man  of  spelling  the  word  preparation 
with  an  e  before  the  r  by  simply  writing  the  word  on  a 
card  and  handing  it  to  him,  with  the  request  that  he 
would  carry  it  in  his  vest-pocket  for  a  little  while.  He 
has  also  frequently  succeeded  in  correcting  the  habit  of 
spelling  existence  with  an  a  after  the  t  by  calling  the  at- 
tention of  a  class  to  the  fact  that  of  the  two  words  exist- 
ence and  resistance,  the  former  begins  with  e  and  ends 
M'ith  ence,  while  the  latter  does  not  begin  with  e  and 
ends  with  ance. 

8.  Exchanging  Slates. — A  great  advantage  arises  from 
having  pupils  exchange  places  at  the  blackboard  or  ex- 
change slates  in  correcting  work.  It  makes  pupils 
critical  to  observe  the  mistakes  of  others,  and  thus  at 
the  same  time  aids  their  own  spelling.  Proof-readers, 
the  best  spellers  in  the  world,  gain  their  efficiency 
lartrclv  by  this  process  of  criticism. 

9.  Syllabication. — Exercises  in  dividing  words  into 
the  syllables  of  which  they  are  composed  is  valuable, 
not  only  in   teaching  pupils  to  divide  words  p:!>perly, 

10 


146  METUODS  OF  TEACHIXO. 

but  also  in  training  them  to  observ^e  closelv  the  relation 
of  different  parts  of  words. 

10.  Groups  of  Words. — Some  teaeliers  oj)pose  the  use 
of  a  spelling-book.  In  such  cases  the  teacher  must  of 
course  originate  a  substitute.  In  doing  so  he  should 
group  the  words  according  to  some  analogy,  and  dic- 
tate them  to  pupils,  so  that  they  may  be  copied  into 
blank-books  for  future  use.  There  is,  liowever,  great 
waste  of  time  in  collecting  words  where  no  book  is 
used,  and  still  greater  waste  -where  words  are  grouped 
M'ithout  system,  and  the  pupil  compelled  to  study  and 
spell  at  random  as  the  words  may  be  called  from  read- 
ing-lessons. The  fault  lies  not  in  the  spelling-book,  but 
rather  in  tlie  fact  that  many  who  use  it  are  deficient  in 
their  methods  of  teaching. 

11.  Phonic  Spelling. — Pupils  should  be  required  to 
spell  words  both  literally  and  phonically.  A  word  is 
spelled  literally  by  naming  the  letters  of  which  it  con- 
sists in  their  proper  order,  and  phonically  by  giving  the 
elementary  sounds  of  which  it  consists  in  their  proper 
order.  For  instance,  cat  is  the  literal  spelling  of  the 
word  eat,  while  the  phonic  si)elling  of  the  same  word 
would  be  properly  represented  by  k  a  t.  To  say  that 
the  former,  cat,  spells  see  eighti)  is  absurd.  The  mis- 
take arises  from  either  an  ignorant  or  a  perverse  mis- 
understanding of  the  difference  between  literal  and 
2)honic  spelling. 

Pupils  learn  to  distinguish  the  silent  letters  and  the 
powers  of  the  various  letters  much  more  readily  by  a 
combination  of  both  literal  and  ])honic  spelling. 

12.  Orthography  in  all  Branches. — One  of  the  most 
effective  methods  of   making  good  spellers  is  that  of 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  Il7 

keeping  the  attention  of  pupils  directed  to  the  form 
of  words  in  all  branches  of  study.  AVhenever  a  mis- 
take  in  spelling  is  detected  in  the  written  work  of  the 
pupil,  it  matters  not  what  the  branch,  it  should  be 
corrected  at  once.  Occasional  exercises  should  be 
given  in  connection  with  all  branches  in  the  correct 
spelling  and  the  etymology  of  the  various  terms  met 
with. 

13.  Paragraph  Spelling. — It  will  be  found  a  valuable 
exercise  to  read  to  pupils  occasionally  a  whole  paragraph, 
or  even  a  story,  with  the  pur2:)0se  of  having  them  copy 
as  you  read,  and  then  exchange  slates,  and  as  the  teacher 
S])ells  the  words  mark  the  mistakes,  as  in  the  ordinary 
recitation. 

14.  Committing  all  the  Words. — It  is  a  great  waste  of 
time  to  require  pujiils  to  commit  to  memory  and  repeat 
all  the  Avords  of  a  spelling-lesson,  and  it  is  a  still  greater 
waste  of  energy. 

15.  Definitions. — Let  pupils  occasionally  explain  the 
meaning  of  words.  It  is  held  by  many  progressive 
teachers  that  it  is  useless  to  learn  the  spelling  of  words 
which  we  do  not  understand.  Do  not,  however,  insist 
on  formal  definitions.  If  the  pupil  can  substitute  a 
"word  or  a  phrase  which  expresses  the  meaning  equally 
well,  accept  it ;  and  if  he  can  incorporate  the  v/ord  in 
an  original  sentence  in  such  a  way  as  to  express  the 
correct  meaning,  it  will  be  still  better. 

16.  Etymology. — The  spelling-lesson  should  be  so  con- 
ducted as  to  teach  somethino;  of  the  oriirin  and  history  of 
words.  The  pu])il  who  is  taught  that  dahlia  is  derived 
from  the  name  of  the  botanist  Dahl  will  rarely  miss  the 
Bpclling  of  that  word ;  and,  similarly,  the  pupils  who  are 


148  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

tauglit  that  camellia  is  named  after  the  Jesuit  Camelli,  ^^  ho 
brought  the  flower  from  the  East,  will  not  fail  to  spell  the 
word  with  two  I's,  and  give  the  e  its  proper  short  sound 
instead  of  the  long  one  so  generally  heard  in  the  pronun- 
ciation of  this  word.  Thus  also  with  many  other  M'ords 
whose  origin  and  history  in  themselves  are  the  source  of 
quite  as  valuable  information  as  the  formal  spelling  of 
the  words. 

Something  may  be  done  also  in  the  work  of  forming 
the  derivatives  from  roots  when  once  the  puinls  under- 
stand the  force  of  even  a  portion  of  the  prefixes  and 
suffixes  which  they  use  daily. 

17.  Words  for  Composition. — An  exceedingly  interest- 
ing exercise  in  spelling  is  that  of  taking  some  word,  and 
from  the  letters  of  which  it  consists  forming  a  number 
of  other  words,  using  no  letter  any  more  frequently  than 
it  occurs  in  the  oritrinal  word.  Thus,  from  the  word 
Baltimore  the  pupil  may  form  bat,  balm,  bate,  bait,  bale, 
bar,  bare,  etc.  to  the  number  of  more  than  two  hundred 
words.  It  is  well  sometimes  to  give  a  short  period  of 
time,  say  five  minutes,  and  have  the  whole  class  contest, 
and  then  either  write  their  words  on  the  board  or  those 
alone  having  the  greatest  number  may  write  them  on  the 
board. 

The  exercise  may  be  varied  by  having  the  class  divided 
into  several  sections,  consisting  of  an  equal  number  of 
pupils  in  each,  and  having  these  sections  contest  with  one 
another,  the  total  number  of  words  written  in  each  sec- 
tion to  be  counted  in  the  summing  up.  Puj^ils  may  also 
have  a  loutrer  time — for  instance,  a  week  or  more — when 
it  will  be  found  that  even  the  parents  will  become  inter- 
ested in  the  work. 


ORTHOGRAPnY.  149 

18.  False  Ortliograpliy. — The  correction  of  false  or- 
thography lias  the  same  force  in  impressiug  the  rules 
of  spelling  on  the  memory  as  has  the  correction  of  false 
syntax  in  impressing  the  rules  for  the  correct  construc- 
tion of  sentences.  The  principle  is,  not  that  we  learn 
the  right  bv  seeins:  the  wrono;,  but  that  we  become  crit- 
ical  and  observant  in  correcting  the  wrong  so  as  to  make 
it  conform  to  usage.  The  most  correct  spellers  are  proof- 
readers, who  are  constantly  on  the  alert  to  detect  the  mis- 
take's of  others.  The  same  is  true  to  a  certain  extent  with 
teachers.  There  is  not  a  teacher  worthy  of  the  name 
Avho  does  not  come  ottt  of  the  school  at  the  close  of  the 
term  a  stronger  scholar  in  both  spelling  and  syntax  than 
he  was  when  he  went  in,  and  all  because  his  wits  have 
been  sliarpened  in  his  efforts  to  correct  the  mistakes  of 
his  pupils. 

That  we  remember  the  wrong  form  in  preference  to 
the  right  when  we  see  a  misspelled  word,  is  as  sensible 
an  assertion  as  to  say  that  when  we  hear  incorrect  speech 
we  naturally  imitate  it  in  preference  to  that  which  Ave 
know  to  be  correct,  or  that  we  naturally  incline  to  such 
mistakes  in  mathematics  and  other  sciences  as  violate  the 
rules.  This  is  conceding  a  little  too  much  to  the  doctrine 
of  original  sin. 

If  an  exercise  in  the  correction  of  false  orthography 
be  properly  conducted,  requiring  the  pupil  to  point  out 
the  error,  state  the  rule  that  is  violated,  and  make  the 
proper  correction, the  exercise  maybe  made  not  only  val- 
uable, but  also  intensely  interesting,  and  no  teacher  need 
liave  anv  fear  that  the  incorrect  form  will  cling  to  the 
memory  of  the  child,  and  no  teacher  who  has  conducted 
the  exercise  properly  ever  found  such  to  be  the  result. 


150  METHODS   OF    TEACHING. 

19.  Rules  for  Spelling. — The  English  language  being 
derived  from  so  many  different  languages,  there  are  but 
few  rules  for  spelling  that  are  not  without  many  excep- 
tions. These  few,  however,  apply  to  many  words,  and  are 
important.  The  teacher  should  give  continued  attention 
in  making  an  application  of  them  wherever  possible  to 
the  spelling  of  words.  Pupils  will  thus  be  enabled  to 
avoid  many  errors. 

The  most  important  of  these  rules  are  the  following  : 

1.  Words  ending  in  silent  e  generally  drop  the  e  on  re- 
ceiving an  additional  syllable  beginning  with  a  vowel;  as, 
moveable,  movable. 

2.  Words  ending  in  silent  e  generally  retain  the  e  on 
receiving  an  additional  syllable  beginning  with  a  conso- 
nant ;  as,  hateful. 

3.  Words  ending  in  J  preceded  by  a  consonant  change 
the  Y  to  i  before  any  other  termination  or  additional  syllable 
than  's  and  those  beginning  with  1 ;  as,  witty,  wittUy. 

4.  When  a  vowel  jyrecedcs  the  final  J,  or  when  a  suffix  is 
added  beginning  with  i,  the  y  is  generally  retained  in  words 
on  receiving  an  additional  termination  ;  as,  boy,  boyish. 

5.  Monosyllables  and  words  accented  on  (he  last  syllable, 
ending  with  a  single  consonant  preceded  by  a  single  vowel, 
double  the  final  consonant  on  taking  an  additional  syllable 
beginning  loith  a  vowel;  as,  get,  getting — begin,  beginning. 

6.  When  a  word  ends  with  two  consonants,  when  the  last 
consonant  is  preceded  by  a  diphthong,  or  when  the  accent  is 
not  on  the  last  syllable,  the  final  consonant  is  not  doubled  on 
receiving  an  additional  syllable  beginning  with  a  vowel;  as, 
cheat,  cheated — benefit,  benefited. 

7.  In  derivative  words  ending  in  the  syllable  full,  one  of 
the  Ys  is  dropped;  as,  pailful. 


ORTHOGRArHY.  151 

8.  In  such  worls  as  receive,  believe,  etc.,  C  is  xmialhj  fol- 
lowed by  ei,  and  the  other  letters  of  the  alphabet  by  ie.  Siegt 
and  besiege  are  the  most  important  exceptions  to  this  rule. 

9.  Words  relating  to  matter  end  in  ceous,  as  arenaceous; 
all  others  in  cious.  The  word  silicious  is  the  only  excep- 
tion, but  this  is  spelled  also  siliceous. 

There  are  of  course  some  exceptions  to  the  foregoing 
rules.  (See  the  author's  Tests  in  Spelling  and  Pronun- 
ciation, pp.  69  and  70.)  The  number  of  exceptions,  how- 
ever, is  small  in  comparison  to  the  large  number  of  words 
covered  by  the  rules. 

20.  Spelling-Games. — Spelling,  like  other  branches,  is 
best  taught  by  making  it  interesting.  Anything  that 
will  tend  to  create  interest  will  assist  in  making  the 
teacher's  methods  successful.  Among  the  plans  for 
securing  variety  and  interest  are  Spelling-Games,  a  few 
of  which  are  explained  below. 

The  pupils  having  been  placed  in  a  line  near  the  plat- 
form, the  teacher  takes  up  some  class  of  words,  as  the 
names  of  domestic  animals,  and  proceeds  to  name  the 
first  word;  a  pupil  at  the  head  of  the  line  is  called  upon 
to  spell  it,  and,  if  he  fail,  he  takes  his  seat;  if  he  spell 
if  successfully,  he  pronounces  a  word  naming  an  object 
of  the  same  kind  for  the  next  pupil  to  spell;  and  so  on, 
each  pupil  failing  to  spell  his  word  or  to  name  one  for 
the  next  pupil  to  spell  takes  his  seat  until  all  are  spelled 
down. 

The  exercise  may  be  varied  by  selecting  different  classes 
of  words  from  day  to  day,  or  by  spelling  several  classes 
in  a  single  recitation.  Thus,  the  following  may  all  be 
called  into  use,  and  the  exercise  be  made  not  only  in- 
teresting, but  also  profitable  : 


152  METHODS   OF  TEACHING. 

Topics  for  Spelling- Games. 

Trees,  Flowers,  Articles  of  Iron,  States    of     llie 

Fruits,  Minerals,  Articles  of  Wood,  Unitod  States. 

Fishes,  Cities,  Names  of  Boys,  Rivers, 

Birds,  Furniture,  Names  of  Girls,  AVild  Animals. 

Other  games  may  be  devised  which  will  prove  equally 
interesting  and  practical.  The  following  are  suggestions 
only,  the  beginning  of  the  game  alone  being  given : 

1.  Let  each  pujiil  spell  a  monosyllable,  and  name  one 
for  tlie  next  to  spell. 

2.  Let  each  pupil  spell  and  name  a  dissyllable. 

3.  Let  each  pupil  spell  and  name  a  trisyllable. 

4.  Vary  the  exercise  and  make  it  more  difficult  by 
requiring  the  next  word  to  begin  with  the  letter  with 
"which  the  preceding  word  ended. 

5.  Spell  words  containing  a  sjiecial  sound,  as  a  in  arm, 
a  in  ask,  a  in  all,  long  e,  etc. 

6.  The  first  pupil  may  name  and  spell  a  word  of  one 
syllable;  the  second  spells  a  word  that  rhymes  with 
the  first,  and  names  a  new  word ;  the  third  pupil  spells 
a  rhyme  to  the  new  word  given  by  the  second ;  and  so 
on.  Give  the  same  exercise  in  dissyllables  and  trisyl- 
lables. 

21.  rUustratious. — It  will  be  found  a  valuable  exercise 
to  have  pupils  illustrate  the  rules  for  spelling.  Thus,  let 
them  bring  to  class  as  a  part  of  the  lesson  a  list  of  twen- 
ty words  illustrating  the  rule  for  dropping  the  final  e; 
again,  for  retaining  the  final  c;  also,  for  doubling  the 
final  consonant  before  syllables  beo-iunino:  with  a  vowel- 
sound.  In  a  similar  manner  give  them  an  occasional 
exercise  in  illustratinor  the  other  important  rules.     In 


OKTHOGEAPHY.  153 

this  manner  llie  rules  as  well  as  the  exceptions  ^-ill  be 
firmly  impressed  on  the  minds  of  the  learners. 

Primary  pupils  may  be  exercised  in  writing  the  names 
of  objects— articles  of  dress,  groceries,  domestic  utensils, 
fowls,  garden  flowers,  wild  flowers,  trees,  names  of  school- 
mates. States,  rivers,  articles  of  food,  and  similar  words. 

22.  Mixed  Exercises. — It  will  be  found  a  valuable  ex- 
ercise in  making  pupils  critical  to  write  a  list  of  words 
on  the  board,  some  of  them  correct  and  others  incorrect, 
and  then  have  the  pupils,  while  in  recitation,  write  the 
Avhole  list  correctly.  It  will  make  them  critical  and  ob- 
servant. An  equally  valuable  exercise  is  aiforded  by  the 
teacher's  writing  a  poorly-spelled  letter  or  composition 
on  the  boai-d,  and  having  the  whole  class  rewrite  it 
properly. 

23.  The  SpelUiig-Matcli.— The  Spelling-Match  Avill 
probably  always  be  popular,  because  it  is  exciting  and 
aifords  pupils  an  o]>portunity  to  measure  their  strength 
with  one  another.  The  method  of  conducting  such  a 
match  is  so  well  understood  that  it  need  only  be  men- 
tioned here. 

The  most  popular  method  is  that  known  as  spelling 
doicn,  in  which  each  pupil,  as  he  misses  a  word,  takes 
his  seat,  when  the  word  is  passed  to  the  next  or  a  new 
word  is  taken  up.  The  contest  continues  in  this  way, 
the  pupils  taking  their  seats  one  by  one  until  none  re- 
main standing.  The  side  having  the  last  representative 
or  the  largest  number  of  representatives  on  the  floor  at 
the  close  of  the  contest  wins  the  match. 

A  variation  of  this  plan  is  that  in  which  a  record  of 
the  various  gains  is  kept.  Thus,  if  a  word  starting  with 
a  side  is  misspelled  by  that  side  and  correctly  spelled  by 


154:  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

the  opposite  side,  it  is  considered  a  gain  for  the  latier, 
and  is  so  marked  on  the  tally-sheet;  bnt  if  it  is  missed 
by  one  side  and  corrected  afterward  by  the  same  side,  it 
coniits  for  neither  party. 

There  are  also  other  variations,  which  it  would  not  be 
profitable  to  discuss  here.  In  a  spelling-match  the  cau- 
tions given  with  reference  to  oral  spelling  should  be  ob- 
served closely,  in  order  that  the  contest  may  be  conducted 
in  the  fairest  manner  possible.  Ko  opportunity  should 
be  given  for  any  dissatisfaction  with  the  teacher's  decis- 
»oug  or  with  bis  manner  of  conducting  the  contest. 


CHAPTER    lY. 

Pr.ONUXCIATIOX. 

Proxunciatiox  is  the  correct  utterance  of  syllables 
and  words ;  it  includes  both  Articulation  and  Accent. 

Articulation  is  the  utterance  of  the  elementary  sounds 
contained  in  a  syllable  or  a  word.  Without  clear  and  dis- 
tinct  articulation  there  can  be  no  correct  pronunciation. 
It  is  therefore  specially  important  that  the  elementary 
sounds  of  the  language  be  frequently  repeated  and 
thorouo;hlv  learned. 

Acceyii  is  the  stress  of  voice  on  a  particular  syllable 
of  a  word.  All  words  of  two  or  more  syllables  have 
one  of  the  syllables  accented.  AVords  of  more  than 
three  syllables  often  have  two  of  the  syllables  accented 
— one  more  forcibly  than  the  other;  the  more  forcible 
accent  of  the  two  being  called  the  primary  accent,  and 
the  less  forcible  the  secondary  accent.  The  custom  of 
the  best  and  the  most  cultivated  speakers  determines 
the  ]  roper  accent.  Accent  is  therefore  best  learned  from 
spelling-books  and  dictionaries,  in  which  this  custom  is 
recorded  and  the  proper  accent  marked. 

Words  may  be  pronounced  either  on  seeing  the  forms 
or  on  hearing  the  letters  named  of  which  they  consist. 
In  reading  we  pronounce  always  by  seeing  the  words. 
If   the  forms  be  familiar,  we   pronounce   readily;    but 

155 


15G  METHODS   OF    TEACHING. 

if   otherwise,  wc  analyze  the  word  into  the  letters  of 
which  it  consists  and  give  to  these  their  usual  power. 

I.  Difficulties  in  the  Way  of  Teaching  Pronunciation. 

The  irregularity  of  English  orthograjihy,  as  explained 
in  connection  with  the  methods  of  teaching  spelling, 
makes  it  equally  difficult  to  teach  pronunciation.  Some 
letters  under  certain  circumstances  are  silent,  some  rep- 
resent more  than  one  sound,  and  sounds  are  represented 
sometimes  bv  several  different  letters.  All  this  makes 
the  correct  pronunciation  of  a  word  an  uncertainty  to 
the  learner. 

The  pronunciation  of  the  Ensrlish  lansiuasce  is  regulated 
by  custom,  and  is  therefore,  to  a  great  extent,  arbitrary. 
This  is  seen  in  the  pronunciation  of  such  words  as  06'- 
Ugatoryy  which  takes  the  accent  on  the  first  syllable, 
though  it  would  be  much  more  natural  to  place  it  on  the 
second.  Different  parts  of  the  same  country  vary  greatly 
in  the  pronunciation  of  many  words,  and  people  of  cid- 
ture,  even  in  the  same  community,  differ  in  the  pronun- 
ciation of  such  words  as  economical,  epoch,  ballet,  envelope, 
heward,  junior,  and  a  host  of  others. 

The  standard  of  pronunciation  is  the  usage  of  cultured 
literary  society.  This  usage,  as  has  been  said,  is  re- 
corded in  our  standard  dictionaries  for  the  various  pro- 
nunciations sanctioned,  and  to  these  we  should  refer  con- 
stantlv  where  there  is  a  possible  doubt  of  correct  pronun- 
ciation. Where  the  American  standards  agree  we  are 
safe  in  accepting  their  dictum  as  correct.  Where  they 
differ  it  will  be  necessary  to  refer  to  some  standard  Eng- 
lish works,  as  ISTuttall,  and  to  the  most  highly-cultured 
literary  men. 


PKONDXCIATIOX.  157 

Another  difficulty  iu  teaching  pronunciation  lies  in  the 
fact  that  most  of  those  who  associate  with  the  children 
to  be  taught  are  continually  making  mistakes,  not  only 
in  pronunciation  proper,  but  particularly  in  the  matter 
of  clear  articulation.  Much  of  this  is  the  result  of  habit, 
as  we  imitate  others  in  their  mistakes  quite  as  certainly 
as  in  that  which  we  believe  to  be  correct. 

The  Teacher's  Habits  of  Pronunciation. — Xo  one  needs 
to  be  more  cinitious  than  the  teacher  in  his  pronunciation. 
His  ]n-onniK'iation  will  be  the  model  which  the  pupils 
\y\]\  imitate.  Xo  matter  how  much  he  may  drill  them 
in  proper  pronunciation,  if  he  be  slovenly  or  incorrect 
in  his  own  speech  he  will  find  his  example  more  power- 
ful than  his  teaching.  Let  him,  therefore,  strive  to  ac- 
quire correct  habits,  in  order  that  they  who  imitate  him 
and  follow  his  example  may  pronounce  correctly  as  a 
matter  of  habit. 

11.  Methods  of  Teaching  Pronunciation. 
Tiie  chief  methods  of  teaching  pronunciation  are  the 
Associative,  the  Alphabetic,  and  the  Phonic. 

1.  The  Associative  Method. 

This  method  proceeds  by  teaching  the  pronunciation  of 
words  by  associating  the  name  with  the  word-form.  The 
method  has  been  fully  described  under  the  Word  Method 
and  the  Object  Method  of  teaching  a  child  to  read. 

It  is  the  natural  method  for  beginners ;  it  is  the 
method  that  the  child  pursues  in  acquiring  kuowhjdge 
from  others;  and  it  may  also  be  claimed  as  being  the 
most  logical,  as  it  proceeds  from  the  known  to  the  un- 
kuo^\■n,  from  the  idea  to  the  word. 


158  METHODS.  OF   TEACHING. 

The  method  is,  however,  limited  in  its  application. 
By  the  Associative  Metiiod  the  child  is  able  to  pro- 
nounce only  those  words  whose  pronunciation  it  has 
been  taught.  By  this  method,  whatever  knowledge  it 
niav  lose  is  gone  without  hope  of  recovery.  Nor  is 
the  child  able  to  glean  any  knowledge  for  itself.  The 
Associative  Method  is  therefore  not  valuable  except  to 
a  limited  extent. 

2.  The  Alphabetic  Method. 

This  method  of  teaching  pi  enunciation  consists  in 
teachins:  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  with  their  corre- 
sponding  sounds,  and  having  the  pupils  pronounce  words 
by  observing  the  combination  of  letters.  They  may 
name  the  letters  first,  or  they  may  glance  at  them  and 
then  pronounce  the  word  by  their  knowledge  of  the 
powers  of  the  various  letters. 

The  argument  that  naming  the  letters  is  necessarily  a 
part  of  the  Alphabetic  Method  is  not  correct.  The  child 
that  pronounces  words  at  sight  looks  at  letter  after  letter, 
and  judges  in  its  own  mind  as  to  the  force  of  each  letter, 
and  pronounces  the  word  according  to  that  judgment,  as 
anv  one  mav  determine  for  himself  if  he  will  take  a  class 
of  children  that  know  nothing  of  the  elementary  sounds 
as  such.  The  process  by  which  they  determine  the  force 
of  the  various  letters  is  possibly  a  painfully  slow  one, 
but  there  can  be  no  question  that  to  a  great  extent  we 
all  learn  to  pronounce  in  that  way. 

Let  a  new  word  be  placed  before  us ;  we  do  not  pro- 
nounce it  by  association,  for  we  know  nothing  of  it,  nor 
do  we  pronounce  it  by  the  phonic  elements  of  which  it 
consists,  for  we  do  u  )t  know  what  these  are,  nor  are  they 


^Ro^-u^xIATION.  159 

represented  in  ordinary  writing.  Our  only  resort  is  to 
the  letters  of  which  the  word  consists.  We  see  these, 
and,  knowing  their  ordinary  power  and  force,  we  are 
enabled  to  form  a  reasonably  correct  judgment  of  the 
pronunciation  of  the  word  at  sight;  and  this  we  do 
by  the  Alphabetic  Method. 

If  pupils  were  taught  the  names  of  the  letters  only  in 
learning  the  alphabet,  tliis  method  of  teaching  pronun- 
ciation would  be  of  little  practical  value,  but  no  good 
teacher  teaches  the  letters  without  also  teaching  the 
sounds  M'hich  they  represent,  and  no  intelligent  pupil 
learns  the  names  of  the  letters  by  the  old  plan,  in  which 
the  al])habet  was  taught  as  distinct  from  spelling  and 
reading.  The  child  whose  exercises  are  selected  proper- 
ly, as  in  lessons  where  there  is  an  analogy  of  sound, 
somethino;  like  the  followino;: 


fan 

bet 

in 

dot 

bun 

man 

let 

bin 

hot 

fun 

pan 

met 

pin 

lot 

gun 

ran 

pet 

sin 

not 

run 

tan 

set 

tin 

rot 

sun 

will  learn  to  pronounce  readily  and  rapidly  by  the  Al- 
phabetic Method,  because,  after  pronouncing  a  few  words, 
he  begins  to  see  that  the  shape  of  the  mouth  in  p'ououn- 
ring  many  of  the  letters  is  substantially  the  same  as  in 
giving  the  elementary  sound  which  that  letter  rc[)re- 
sents. 

The  objection  to  the  Alphabetic  Method,  as  pursued 
in  the  old-time  school,  lies  not  so  much  against  tlie 
method  as  against  the  illoo-ical  manner  in  wliich  the 
words  were  arranired  and  the  aimless  way  in  which  the 


160  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

teaclier  fulloAved  tlie  book.  The  aro-ument  urged  in 
speaking  of  a  child's  learning  to  read,  that  "The  letters 
do  not  spell  the  words,  and  therefore  the  knowledge  of 
the  letters  does  not  aid  him  in  reading  the  words;  they 
do  spell  sometliing  else,  and  therefore  are  an  actual  hin- 
drance iu  learning  to  read/'  is  simply  absurd — almost 
too  absurd,  indeed,  to  merit  attention.  Where  would  be 
the  knowledge  of  the  writer  who  advocates  this  argu- 
ment, or  what  would  even  a  child's  knowledge  be  worth, 
if  it  knew  nothing  of  the  alphabet  and  the  power  of 
the  letters  which  the  characters  represent?  As  has  been 
said  before,  much  of  the  opposition  to  this  method  is 
based  on  the  assumption  which  fails  to  distinguish  be- 
tween the  literal  and  the  phonic  spelling  of  a  word. 
Words  consist  of  letters  as  well  as  of  sounds,  and  this 
distinction  must  be  kept  clear  in  the  mind  of  the 
learner.  Indeed,  there  could  be  no  written  language 
■whatever  without  the  characters  (letters)  which  we  use 
to  represent  spoken  words. 

3.  Tlie  Phonic  Method. 

By  the  Phonic  Method  of  teaching  pronounciation  the 
pupils  are  first  taught  the  elementary  sounds,  and  in  con- 
nection with  these  the  characters  which  represent  them. 
Tiiese  characters  may  be  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  with 
distinctive  marks  to  indicate  each  sound,  or  they  may 
consist  of  a  special  character  to  indicate  each  one  of  the 
forty  or  more  distinct  sounds. 

When  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  are  used,  tlie  varia- 
tions in  sound  inay  be  indicated  as  follows:  ale,  Id,  art, 
all,  etc.,  or  by  the  usual  diacritical  marks  as  found  in 
the  dictionaiy.     Necessarily,  the  consonants   must  also 


PRONUNCIATION.  161 

have  special  marks  wherever  a  letter,  as  c,  may  repre- 
sent more  than  one  sound,  and  the  silent  letters  should 
be  indicated,  so  that  the  pupils  may  know  wliicli  letters 
are  sounded  and  which  are  silent  in  the  pronunciation 
of  a  word. 

In  order  to  make  this  method  successful,  it  is  neces- 
sary  that  the  books  be  printed  in  marked  type,  or  that 
the  teacher  mark  each  word  with  pen  or  pencil.  It  is 
claimed  for  this  method  by  those  who  advocate  it  that  it 
is  both  natural  and  philosophical.  It  would  be  both  were 
our  language  a  phonetic  language,  in  which  every  sound 
is  represented  by  a  separate  character. 

Serious  objections  have  been  raised  to  the  purely  phonic 
method : 

1.  Pupils  who  have  learned  to  pronounce  by  this 
method  find  the  transition  to  unmarked  letters  a  diffi- 
culty simply  postponed,  but  made  none  the  easier  on 
that  account. 

2.  Pupils  who  learn  to  pronounce  by  the  Phonic 
Method  find  a  difficulty  in  learning  to  spell  English 
as  it  is. 

3.  There  are  many  words  in  the  English  language 
which  could  not  be  classified  by  analogy  of  either  spell- 
ing or  pronunciation  iu  such  a  way  as  to  be  of  any  use  to 
the  learner. 

When  used  with  the  Alphabetic  and  the  Associative 
Method  the  Phonic  Method  is  valuable,  but  we  think 
the  advocates  of  this  metliod  have  claimed  too  much 
for  it  when  used  as  a  distinctive  method,  and  the 
schools  iu  which  it  is  used  as  a  distinctive  method  aro 
few  in  number. 
II 


1G2  METHODS   OF   TEACHIXO. 

II!.  Suggestions  on  Teaching  Pronunciation. 

1.  Make  a  judicious  combinatiou  of  all  the  methods 
in  teaching  pronunciation. 

2.  Begin  to  teach  words  as  suciGrested  under  the  "Word 
Method  and  the  Object  Metliod  of  teaching  reading. 

3.  In  pursuing  the  Alj)habetic  Method  do  not  fail  to 
arranore  the  first  lessons  accordlns;  to  analogy  of  sound. 

4.  Let  the  first  lessons  by  the  Alphabetic  Method  have 
no  silent  letters,  no  equivalents,  and,  as  far  as  possible,  no 
variable  letters  except  the  vowels. 

5.  Let  the  children  pronounce  the  words  for  themselves 
whenever  possible. 

6.  Train  them  to  notice  the  position  of  the  vocal  or- 
gans, particularly  in  giving  each  consonant. 

7.  If  the  spelling-book  or  other  work  used  for  pro- 
nouncing exercises  is  not  properly  arranged,  use  the 
blackboard  and  arrange  words  in  such  a  manner  as  will 
permit  you  to  teach  pronunciation  in  a  philosophical 
way. 

8.  Train  pupils  to  pronounce  readily  at  sight  as  pre- 
paratory to  teaching  them  to  read. 

9.  Let  pupils  look  carefully  at  a  word,  to  see  the 
letters  of  which  it  is  composed,  and  then  name  it  with- 
out spelling  it  aloud. 

10.  Have  pupils  analyze  words  into  both  their  letters 
and  their  sounds.  A  good  plan  of  conducting  a  new  ex- 
ercise is  the  following: 

a.  The  teacher  pronounces  the  word,  and  the  pupil 
imitates. 

b.  The  pupil  names  the  letters  and  pronounces  the 
word. 


PRONUNCIATION.  163 

c.  The  pupil  gives  the  sounds  of  the  word  and  pro- 
nounces. 

d.  The  pupil  pronounces  the  word  at  sight. 

11.  Do  not  insist  on  differing  with  the  pronunciation 
of  those  with  whom  you  associate,  unless  their  pronun- 
ciation is  absolutely  incorrect;  even  then  train  them 
rather  to  imitate  you  than  correct  them.  They  Mill 
see  their  mistakes  for  themselves. 

12.  Do  not  use  affected  pronunciation.  If  you  believe 
either  and  neither  to  be  strictly  correct,  use  them  instead 
of  either  and  neither;  but  if  you  simply  pronounce  in 
this  way  to  imitate  somebody  else,  or  pronounce  so  be- 
cause you  want  to  appear  scholarly,  you  will  deceive  no 
one  so  much  as  yourself. 

13.  Always  remember  tliat  pronunciation  is  a  matter 
of  taste  and  culture,  and  that  while  others  may  differ 
from  you  in  their  pronunciation,  both  you  and  they 
may  be  correct. 

14.  Teach  your  pupils  to  form  a  habit  of  pronouncing 
correctly.  Weakness  of  scholarship  is  more  readily  de- 
tected here  even  than  in  spelling. 

15.  Give  your  pupils  a  list  of  frequently  mispronounced 
words,  and  drill  them  every  day  on  a  few  of  these.  You 
will  be  surprised,  when  you  come  to  make  up  the  list,  to 
find  how  many  you  yourself  have  been  accustomed  to 
mispronounce. 

IV.  Articulation. 
TKere  are  two  steps  in  teaching  Articulation :  the  first 
of  these  consists  in  training  a  child  to  distinguish  the 
sounds  of  the  language ;  the  second^  in  training  him  to 
utter  them. 


164  METHODS   OF   TEACHIXG. 

Methods  of  Teaching  Articulation. 

Tlie  methods  of  teaching  Articulation  are  properly 
hvo — by  Imitation  and  by  Phonic  Drill. 

Imitation. — Children  learn  to  articulate  much  as  they 
learn  to  talk,  by  imitating  others.  They  speak  natu- 
rally in  imitation  of  their  associates.  Looking  upon  the 
teacher,  as  they  do,  in  the  light  of  being  an  authority  in 
scholarship,  they  will  naturally  imitate  him.  It  is  there- 
fore specially  imjwrtant  that  his  articulation  be  both 
clear  and  correct.  Pupils  to  some  extent  imitate  also 
their  parents  and  older  brothers  and  sisters,  particu- 
larly if  these  be  scholarly;  and  it  is  important,  there- 
fore, that  these  also  be  correct  in  their  articulation  if 
it  is  hoped  to  make  the  younger  children  correct  in  their 
speech. 

The  teacher  can  do  much  in  training  his  pupils  to  cor- 
rect articulation  by  pronouncing  certain  words  or  syl- 
lables and  having  his  pupils  imitate  him  closely. 

Phonic  Drill. — This  consists  in  a  drill  in  the  element- 
ary sounds.  Pupils,  as  has  been  suggested,  should  have 
a  frequent  drill  on  these  sounds  until  they  are  able  to 
enunciate  each  one  of  them  distinctly  and  correctly.  The 
drill  may  with  profit  be  carried  through  all  grades  of 
schools  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest.  As  has  been 
heretofore  suggested,  these  drills  may  be  varied  so  as  to 
include  drills  in  rate,  force,  pitch,  etc.,  in  reading,  and 
thus  be  made  doublv  useful. 

.    The  ear  should  be  carefully  trained  to  distinguish  the 
sounds,  so  that  they  may  be  given  accurately.     Pai'ticu- 


PRONUNCIATION.  165 

lar  care  should  be  given  to  those  which  are  difficuh  for 
some  pupils,  as  s,  th,j,  ic,  and  others. 

Suggestions  on  TeacMng  i^rticulatioa. 

1.  Drill  pupils  frequently  on  the  pronunciation  of 
sentences  containing  difficult  combinations,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  giving  them  distinct  articulation.  Take  buch 
sentences  as  the  following:  She  sells  sea-sliells;  Shave 
a  cedar  shingle  thin ;  Masses  of  immense  magnitude  move 
majestically  tiirough  the  vast  empire  of  the  solar  system. 

2.  Where  stammering  is  the  result  of  habit,  it  may 
frequently  be  corrected  by  requiring  the  pupil  to  speak 
or  read  more  deliberately.  It  is  often  the  case  that  one 
who  stammers  in  speaking  or  reading  will  sing  faultless- 
Iv,  showihs:  that  in  such  a  case  stammering  is  not  caused 
by  a  defect  in  the  vocal  organs,  but  that  Jt  is  the  result 
more  probably  of  habit  or  excitement. 

When  stammering  is  the  result  of  timidity,  the  teacher 
must  cultivate  in  the  pupil  a  greater- confidence  in  him- 
self. 

Unless  there  is  some  defect  in  the  vocal  organs, 
stammering  may  usually  be  corrected  by  having  the 
pupil  both  speak  and  read  for  a  time  slowly.  It  is 
a  curious  fact  that  often  one  who  stammers  will  read 
poetry,  where  the  time  is  measured,  much  more  readily 
than  he  will  read  prose.  This  is  an  additional  argument 
in  favor  of  the  pupil's  movement  being  deliberate. 

3.  AVhen  lisping  is  the  result  of  affectation,  it  may 
frequently  be  cured  by  a  little  judicious  ridicule  and  by 
showing  the  pupil  how  it  mars  the  beauty  of  speech. 
The  teacher  may  in  such  a  case  read  in  imitation  of  the 
pupil. 


166  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

But,  usually,  lisping  is  the  result  of  a  defect  in  the 
tongue.  The  ton2:ue  is  sometimes  so  lono-  as  to  strike 
the  teeth  when  the  s-souud  is  to  be  produced,  and  the 
result  is  that  the  s  changes  to  th,  because  the  tongue,  in- 
stead of  being  free,  presses  against  the  teeth  or  protrude& 
betweeu  them.  In  such  cases  the  teacher  should  show 
the  child  how  to  place  the  tongue  that  the  s-sound  may- 
be proiiuced,  and  then  have  the  pupil  imitate  him.  Long 
practice  is  sometimes  necessary  to  correct  the  fault. 

4.  Slovenly  and  lazy  speech  should  be  corrected. 
There  are  many  who  mispronounce  such  words  as 
government,  something,  nothing,  which,  wheat,  etc.,  simply 
through  carelessness. 

5.  Local  errors  in  articulation  shoidd  receive  the  at- 
tention of  the  teacher.  The  use  of  s  for  z,  v  for  w,  lo  for 
V,  th  for  (/,  e/i  for  j,  j  for  ch,  d  for  t,  ^3  for  b,  etc.,  should 
be  condemned  and  carefully  corrected. 

The  clipping  of  syllables,  the  adding  of  letters  where 
not  needed,  and  the  substitution  of  one  vowel-sound  for 
another,  as  gosjAl  for  gospQl,  or  inyiosUns  for  innocence, 
are  all  errors  that  ou2;ht  to  be  corrected  bv  the  teacher 
whenever  they  occur. 

6.  Caution  pupils  to  articulate  distinctly  in  conversa- 
tion as  well  as  in  reading  or  in  more  formal  speech. 

7.  Do  not  waste  any  time  in  teaching  pu[)ils  how  to 
place  tneir  vocal  organs,  except  where  their  articulation 
is  either  indistinct  or  incorrect. 

V.  Accent. 

In  order  to  learn  the  general  principles  governing 
Accent,  it  is  best  for  the  student  to  consult  one  of  the 
standard  dictionaries,  but  the  rules  even  as  stated  there 


PRONUNCIATION.  167 

are  liable  to  veiy  many  exceptions,  and  it  ^^  ould  not  be 
profitable,  therefore,  to  discuss  them  here. 

Compouud  words  in  English  frequently,  when  first 
formed,  seem  to  have  two  accents.  Tiiis  by  many  writers 
is  indicated  by  the  hyphen.  Thus,  originally  we  had  the 
expression  "a  black  board',''  then  "a  black'-board',''  with 
accent  on  both  syllables,  and  finally,  "a  black'board,"  with 
the  accent  on  the  first  syllable  and  the  hyphen  dropped. 
This  rule  is,  however,  so  frequently  violated  that  it  can 
hardly  be  regarded  as  a  rule. 

An  important  principle,  which  would  save  many  mis- 
pronunciations were  it  generally  understood,  is  that  in 
compounds  the  adjective  or  modifying  part  of  the  word 
usually  takes  the  accent,  as  in  school' -house,  pen'-knife, 
bay'-rum,  bay'-window,  etc. 

iVlethods  of  Teaching  Accent. 
Grouping. — Accent  may  be  tauglit  by  grouping  words 
according  to  the  accented  svllables.  Thus,  it  will  be 
found  a  valuable  exercise  to  have  pupils  name  a  cer- 
tain number  of  words  of  two  syllables,  names  of  objects, 
accented  on  the  first,  then  a  number  accented  on  the  sec- 
ond, then  a  number  of  verbs  accented  on  the  second  or 
on  the  first,  and  so  on. 

Imitation. — Accent  may  be  taught  also  by  imitation. 
In  this  case  it  is  necessary  that  the  teacher  should  be 
careful  to  give  words  their  projier  accent,  in  order  that 
pupils  may  have  correct  models  to  imitate.  \^  the  teacher 
be  in  doubt  as  to  the  ])roper  pronunciation  of  a  word,  he 
should  consult  the  dictionary  at  once,  in  order  that  the 
pupils  may  have  a  correct  guide. 


168 


METHODS   OF    TEACHING. 


Errors. — Pupils  should  be  critical  in  their  pronunciation 
of  words.  Their  attention  should  be  called  ])articularly 
to  such  common  words  as  they  are  liable  to  mispronounce 
in  their  daily  conversation.  Bad  habits  in  pronunciation 
can  be  corrected  only  by  the  most  persistent  care  and 
practice. 

Pronouncing  Exercises. — These  are  quite  important  in 
teaching  accent.  The  teacher  may  Avith  profit  substitute 
an  exercise  of  this  kind  at  least  once  a  week  for  the  reg- 
ular exercise  in  spelling.  Teachers  themselves  will  be 
surprised  at  the  number  of  Avords  which  most  persons 
mispronounce  habitually.  Words  like  the  following  may 
prove  not  only  interesting,  but  also  valuable,  in  show- 
ing pupils  their  mistakes  both  in  accent  and  in  uttering 
the  vowel-sounds : 


abdomen. 

bomb. 

donkey. 

bromide. 

acclimate, 

booth. 

encore, 

inquiry. 

acoustics. 

boudoir, 

esquire. 

joust, 

allies, 

bouquet, 

forgo. 

legislature, 

Adonis, 

broth. 

frost. 

lien. 

area, 

canine. 

idea. 

long-lived. 

assent. 

Ciiscade, 

occult. 

microscopy, 

benzine. 

desist. 

isolated, 

mogul. 

orchestral, 

disdain. 

})recedence. 

nausea, 

ornate, 

Persian, 

recluse. 

solitaire. 

overseer, 

phthisis, 

revolt, 

steam,-engine, 

mamma, 

placard. 

romance, 

telegraphy. 

Suggestions  on  Teaching  Accent. 
1.  Give  occasional  exercises  consisting  of  words  pro- 


PROXUNCIATIOX.  169 

miscuoiislj  arranged,  and  have  the  i)ni)ils  write  tlicse  and 
mark  the  accent. 

2.  Give  occasional  short  prdnouncinij:  exercises  in 
■which  the  pupils  write  out  the  words  and  indicate  not 
only  the  accent,  but  also  the  elementary  sounds  and  the 
silent  letters,  by  using  diacritical   marks. 

3.  Have  pronouncing  matches  for  the  purpose  of  cre- 
atino;  interest  and  variety.  In  this  case  the  teacher  may 
spell  the  words  or  write  a  number  on  the  board,  and  re- 
quire the  pupils  to  copy  them  and  mark  the  proper  pro- 
nunciation ;  or  lists  of  words  may  be  handed  to  the  pupils, 
from  which  they  pronounce  orally. 

4.  Call  attention  to  words  on  which  authorities  dififer 
in  the  location  of  accent  or  in  which  the  accent  may 
^vith  authority  be  located  in  more  than  one  place.  Such 
words  as  maU ef actor  or  mahfac'tor,  cement'  or  cem'eni 
when  used  as  a  noun,  car'mine  or  carmine',  clem'atis 
or  cJema'tis,  dem'onstrate  or  demon'drate,  dec'orous  or 
dcco'roas,  will   serve  the  purpose. 

5.  Train  the  pupils  to  use  the  dictionary  intelligently. 
See  that  they  understand  how  to  us-  the  diacritical 
marks  there  given. 


CHAPTER    V. 

Lexicology. 

Lexicology  is  a  term  ',vbich  has  been  used  bj  some 
authors  as  namins:  the  science  Avhich  treats  of  the  mean- 
ino-  of  M-ords.  Etvmolojrv  (from  the  Greek  etymon,  the 
true  meaning,  and  logos,  discourse)  would  probably  be 
a  more  appropriate  term.  Either  term  will,  however, 
answer  our  purpose.  It  is  proposed  here  simply  to 
show  how  the  meaning  of  words  may  be  acquired  by 
the  learner. 

It  is  necessary,  of  course,  that  a  pupil  should  compre- 
hend fully  the  meaning  not  only  of  the  words  he  uses, 
but  also  of  those  with  which  he  comes  in  contact  in  his 
daily  reading  of  books  or  newspapers.  It  is  important 
that  he  should  know  the  shades  of  meaning  existing 
between  words  of  somewhat  similar  import,  in  order 
that  he  may  exj)rcss   himself  definitely  and  correctly. 

There  are  a  number  of  ways  by  which  we  may  ac- 
quire a  correct  knowledge  of  the  meaning  of  words. 
Am.ong   them   the  following  are  the  most  important: 

1.  By  their  Use  in  Conversation. — Children  gain  their 
first  knowledge  of  the  meaning  of  words  by  their  use 
in  the  conversation  of  those  around  them.     If  the  con- 
versation of  the  parents  be  incorrect,  if  the  terms  they 
iro 


LEXICOLOGY.  171 

use  be  incorrectly  applied,  the  cliilJ's  habit  of  speech 
will  be  similarly  incorrect.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  if 
the  words  used  by  the  parents  and  other  associates  of  a 
child  be  strictly  correct,  those  of  the  child  will  also  be 
correct.  Children  learn  the  meaning  of  many  Mords 
because  tliey  hear  them  associated  with  objects,  actions, 
or  qualities  iu  the  daily  conversatiun  of  those  around 
them. 

2.  By  Reading. — AVhen  pupils  have  once  learned  to  read 
they  will  glean  the  meaning  of  many  words  new  to  them 
as  these  are  met  with  in  the  printed  page.  They  learn  the 
meaning  here"  much  as  they  do  in  conversation,  by  the 
force  which  the  word  seems  to  have  in  a  sentence.  It 
is  a  noticeable  fact  that  children  who  read  the  most  or 
have  the  most  intelligent  associates  at  home  are  they 
who  have  the  choicest  vocabulary  and  who  make  the 
most  a])propriate  use  of  words. 

3.  By  their  Use  in  Sentences. — Pupils  learn  the  mean- 
ing of  words  readily  also  by  their  use  in  sentences.  A 
word  which  used  by  itself  is  meaningless  to  a  pupil 
when  placed  in  a  .sentence  may  convey  to  him  a  definite 
idea.  Indeed,  children  often  grasp  the  meaning  of 
words  more  readily  and  more  correctly  in  this  way  than 
thev  can  bv  consultino;  a  formal  definition  as  found  iu 
the  dictionary.  Every  new  book  they  read  gives  them 
not  onlv  new  thouiihts,  but  also  the  words  with  which  to 
clothe  those  thoughts. 

4.  By  Definitions. — Formal  definitions  are  in  many 
cases  necessary  to  give  the  learner  a  clearer  conception  of 
the  meanino'  of  a  word.  Manv  scientific  terms  could  in 
DO  other  way  be  taught  equally  well.  We  may  speak  of 
a  fio7xl  again  and  again,  but  until  the  pupil  learns  the 


172  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

definition  or  sees,  the  ol^ject  he  has  no  cleai  idea  as  to 
what  the  word  means. 

5.  By  Illustration. — The  meaning  of  words  may  be 
taught  by  illustrations  and  experiments.  Thus,  the  dif- 
ference between  the  meaning  of  tlie  words  inflammable 
and  combustible  may  be  illustrated  to  a  child  by  showing 
that  a  number  of  substances  burn  without  a  flame,  and 
are  therefore  simply  combustible,  while  others  burn  wnth 
a  flame,  and  are  therefore  not  only  combustible,  because 
they  burn,  but  inflammable,  because  they  burn  Avith  a 
flame.  Thus,  also  we  may  illustrate  many  other  words 
as  we  teach  them  by  showing  the  action  or  the  object  as 
we  use  the  word. 

6.  By  the  Study  of  Synonyms. — Synonyms  are  words 
which  liave  the  same  general  signification,  as  the  two 
words  love  and  like,  with  greater  or  less  shade  of  difference 
in  meaning.  The  English  language  is  rich  in  synonyms, 
from  the  fact  that  it  is  a  composite  language,  having 
acquired  substantially  the  same  term  from  various  lan- 
guages. Thus,  we  have  fatherly,  motherly,  etc.  from  the 
Anglo-Saxon,  and  the  corresponding  paternal,  maternal, 
etc.  from  the  Latin. 

The  study  of  .synonyms  enables  the  pupil  to  express 
finer  shades  of  meaning  whieii  Avould  be  impossible 
without  them,  and  their  misuse  is  often  the  source  of 
very  ridiculous  errors. 

7.  By  the  Study  of  Etymology. — By  the  study  of  ety- 
mology is  here  meant  the  technical  study  of  the  roots 
of  words,  together  with  the  prefixes  and  suffixes  by  tiie 
aid  of  wliidi  other  words  are  formed.  The  study  of 
technical  etymology  often  gives  us  a  knowledge  of  the 
original  signification  of  a  word  which  we  probably  could 


LEXICOLOGY.  173 

not  iieacli  in  any  otlier  way.  Thus,  in  the  word  educa- 
tion, when  we  learn  that  it  is  from  the  root  educo,  eda- 
care,  to  foster,  to  feed,  to  teach,  we  have  a  clearer  notion 
of  its  strictly  correct  use ;  and  the  same  is  true  of  other 
words. 

8.  By  the  Study  of  Other  Languages. — It  is  especially 
true  that  the  study  of  Latin  and  Greek,  which  give  us 
the  basis  of  many  of  our  derivative  words,  enables  us 
to  learn  the  meaning  of  many  words  in  our  language ; 
but  it  is  true  also  that  the  .study  of  other  languages, 
particularly  German  and  French,  not  only  enlarges  our 
vocabulary,  but  also  enables  us  to  have  a  clearer  con- 
ception of  the  meaning  of  the  words  we  use  as  derived 
from  those  lano-uacres. 


*J3""0' 


Suggestions  on  Teaching  Lexicology. 

1.  The  conversation  of  those  who  are  associated  with 
children  should  be  such  as  will  enable  the  latter  to  gain  a 
correct  knowledge  of  the  meaning  of  words.  For  this 
reason  slano-  should  be  rio;idly  avoided. 

2.  It  will  be  profitable  for  the  teacher  to  relate  an 
anecdote  or  give  an  interesting  narrative  or  description 
in  choice  language.  His  pupils  will  not  fail  to  catch 
the  words  and  make  them  a  part  of  their  own  vocab- 
ulary. 

3.  Pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  read  interesting 
books  well  written,  such  as  Bohinson  Crusoe,  The  Swiss 
Family  Bobinson,  and  others  in  which  the  diction  is  pure 
and  the  style  interesting. 

4.  In  the  reading-lessons  pupils  should  be  asked  to 
tell  in  their  own  language  the  meaning  of  certain 
words,  or  they   may  be  permitted  to  substitute  other 


174  METHODS   OF    TEACHING. 

words  if  they  can  preserve  the  meaning  of  the  sentence 
unchano-ecl. 

5.  Pupils  may  show  that  they  know  the  meaning  of 
words  by  incorporating  them  in  original  sentences. 

6.  Object-lessons  on  words  may  be  given  to  teach  ac- 
curate discrimination  in  the  meaning. 

7.  In  teaching  the  meaning  of  words  by  definitions 
the  teacher  must  see  that  the  definition  is  not  more 
difficult  to  grasp  than  the  word  defined. 

8.  Definitions  should  be  correct.  Thus,  to  define  the 
world  as  tlie  universe  is  both  absurd  and  incorrect. 

9.  It  is  better  to  learn  the  meaning  of  words  in  sen- 
tences than  by  the  use  of  definitions.  An  alcove  is  a 
recess,  but  for  the  teacher  to  say  in  his  jirogramme  that 
the  school  will  have  an  "alcove"  between  the  exercises 
would  scarcely  be  considered  correct. 

10.  Teachers  should  not  require  pupils  to  commit  formal 
definitions,  except  where  they  are  the  scientific  definitions 
of  terms. 

11.  Pupils  should  be  trained  to  make  a  note  of  such 
new  words  as  they  meet,  and  examine  the  dictionary  to 
learn  their  true  meaning. 

12.  The  study  of  synonyms  should  be  encouraged,  and 
pupils  should  be  required  to  illustrate  the  difference  in 
sentences.  Pupils  will  thus  learn  where  words  are  in- 
terchancreable  and  where  thev  are  not. 

13.  Scientific  definitions  should  be  as  clearly  stated 
as  possible. 

14.  In  teacliing  the  etymology  of  Avords  the  subject 
"should  be  made  practical.  Both  the  analytic  and  the 
synthetic  method  may  be  used.  The  analytic  is  the 
more  interesting  for  beginners. 


LEXICOLOGY.  175 

15.  It  will  be  found  a  valuable  exercise*  to  take  a 
root,  as  iraho,  I  draw,  and  let  the  pupils  write  as  mauy 
words  derived  from  it  as  possible,  such  as  attract,  attrac- 
tion, subtraction,  subtrahend,  distraction,  traction,  trace, 
tract. 

16.  Pupils  should  be  tauglit  to  study  the  history  of 
words.  Let  the  teaclier  give  them  the  history  of  a  few 
such  words  as  pagan,  idiot,  silly,  knave,  candidate,  prevent, 
stove,  etc.  Tliese  will  prove  of  such  interest  that  children 
will  readily  search  out  the  history  of  any  word  suggested 
by  the  teacher.  Teachers  may  gain  valuable  aid  from 
Trench  On  the  Study  of  Words  and  the  works  of  Whit- 
ney, ]Marsh,  Home  Tooke,  Max  Miiller,  Scheie  de  Vere, 
and  others. 

17.  The  meanino;  of  words  as  used  in  a  figurative  as 
■well  as  in  a  literal  sense  should  be  explained. 

18.  The  teacher  should  show  to  pupils  how  the  lan- 
guage changes  by  the  admission  of  new  words  as  needed, 
and  by  dropping  the  old  ones  when  no  longer  necessary 
to  express  thought. 

19.  Xever  require  the  definition  of  a  word  whose 
meaning  is  already  well  known. 

20.  Mark  the  difficult  words  in  the  advanced  readins;- 
lesson,  and  require  pupils  to  search  for  their  meaning. 

21.  Require  each  pupil  occasionally  to  bring  to  class  a 
word  and  define  it  orally,  then  use  it  in  a  sentence. 

22.  The  teacher  should  frequently  give  the  pupils 
equivalent  terms  for  words  they  use.  Thus,  if  they 
use  the  Saxon  nightly,  he  should  give  them  the  Latin 
nocturnal,  or  if  they  use  the  Latin  felicity,  let  the  teacher 
give  them  the  Saxon  happiness.  In  this  way  he  will  not 
only  enlarge  their  vocabulary,  but  also  train  them  to  dis- 


176  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

tinguisli  Accurately  and   readily  the  various  shades  of 
meaning  expressed. 

23.  Exercises  similar  to  the  following  will  prove  not 
only  interesting,  but  also  valuable.  These  may  be  con- 
ducted as  word-matches,  somewhat  in  the  nature  of 
spelling-matches : 

a.  Let  each  pupil  in  turn  give  a  word  having  a  certain 
suiBx,  as  er,  and  define.     Thus,  singer,  one  who  sings. 

b.  Let  each  pupil  in  turn  name  a  word  having  a  certain 
prefix,  as  con,  and  define. 

c.  Name  a  root,  as /acto,  and  let  each  pupil  in  turn  give 
a  word  derived  from  it,  and  define. 

(1.  Let  the  teacher  name  a  word,  and  the  pujjil  give  a 
svnonvm. 

e.  Let  a  pupil  name  a  word,  and  his  opposite  give  a 
synonym,  and  this  pupil  in  turn  name  a  word  for  which 
his  opposite  gives  a  synonym. 

/.  Let  one  pupil  name  a  word,  and  the  next  a  word  of 
contrary  meaning. 

g.  Let  the  teacher  analyze  a  word,  as  graphic,  and  then 
have  all  the  pupils  write  as  many  words  as  possible  de- 
rived from  the  same  root.  This  exercise  may  be  still 
more  extended  as  the  teacher's  judgment  may  direct. 

24.  Pupils  should  be  trained,  as  they  advance,  to  form 
definitions  for  themselves. 


CHAPTER   YI. 

Language-Lessoxs  and  Grammar. 

Language-Lessoxs  are  such  lessons  in  the  use  of 
language  as  are  adapted  to  give  training  in  the  correct 
use  of  one's  mother-tongue.  They  should  precede  any 
efforts  to  teach  g-rararaar  as  a  science.  Like  most  other 
primary  teaching,  they  are  based  properly  on  induction, 
and  the  process  of  teaching  is  essentially  synthetic. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  aim  of  language- 
lessons  is  not  to  create  thought  or  furnish  the  words 
with  which  to  express  thought,  but  rather  to  teach  the 
proi)er  arrangement  of  language  in  expression.  The 
proper  function  of  lessons  in  English  is  that  of  training 
pupils  to  express  themselves  in  accordance  with  the  best 
usage  of  our  lansruafre. 

Children  learn  language  to  a  great  extent  by  imitation. 
It  is  therefore  of  great  imj)ortance  that  the  teacher  ex- 
press his  thoughts  in  accordance  with  accepted  and  cor- 
rect usage.  It  is  equally  important  that  the  children  in 
their  conversation,  in  their  compositions,  and  in  their 
class-recitations  use  none  but  correct  language;  and  to 
this  end  the  teacher  should  cultivate  a  spirit  of  generous 
criticism. 

Language-lessons  are  important  not  only  beca;:se  they 

12  177 


178  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

teach  the  child  the  correct  use  of  language,  but  also  be- 
cause they  lay  the  fouudation  for  proper  methods  of 
teaching  grammar  as  a  science. 

The  objection  to  the  teaching  of  grammar — or  what 
ha*  been  called  Technical  Grammar — in  our  schools 
docs  not  hold  against  grammar  itself,  but  rather  against 
the  method  of  teaching  it.  The  difficulty  lies  in  the  fact 
that  we  have  attempted  to  teach  the  science  itself  before 
the  mental  faculties  of  the  children  were  sufficiently  de- 
veloped to  understand  and  comprehend  the  principles  of 
the  science.  As  a  result,  the  work  of  learning  consisted 
mainly  in  memorizing  definitions  and  rules,  without  any 
corresponding  ability  to  apply  them  in  tiie  construction 
of  sentences.  The  work  has  been  deductive,  Avhile  the 
true  plan  of  teaching  primary  grammar  is  inductive — 
first  the  idea,  then  the  name,  then  the  definition. 

Language-lessons  siiould  precede  technical  or  scientific 
grammar.  Exercise  should  follow  exercise  until  the  \m\n\ 
becomes  expert  in  the  use  of  English  and  writes  correctly 
as  a  habit.  Pupils  will  take  great  delight  in  the  construc- 
tion of  sentences,  and  teachers  will  find  that  the  pupil's 
consciousness  of  his  power  to  conapose  will  be  to  him 
a  great  delight. 

I.  Principles. 

The  following  principles  must  be  observed  in  the 
leaching  of  language: 

1.  Language  is  Acquired  Chiefly  by  Imitation. — The 
child's  vocabulary  is  full  or  meagre,  and  its  manner 
of  expression  correct  or  incorrect,  according  to  those  of 
its  parents  and  others  with  whom  it  associates.  Habits 
of  speech  are  formed  much  like  other  habits,  and  they  take 


LANGUAGE-LESSONS   AND   GRAMMAR.  17^' 

their  coloring  from  those  after  which  they  are  copied.  If, 
therefore,  the  speech  of  the  parents  and  the  child's  othei 
associates  be  correct,  and  the  vocabulary  extensive  and 
varied,  we  may  reasonably  expect  the  habits  of  the  child 
to  be  correct.  But  if  the  surroundings  of  the  child 
be  unfavorable  to  language-culture,  we  may  expect  its 
sj»eech  to  be  defective  and  its  language  often  incorrect. 

2.  Language-Teaching  should  be  Inductive.— Instead  of 
b('<rinnin<r    with    the    definition,   elementary   instruction 

"too  '  "^ 

shonld  end  with  definitions.  The  true  plan  in  teaching 
language  is  to  teach  first  the  idea  thoroughly,  then  asso- 
ciate the  name,  and  finally  give  the  scientific  definition. 
Thus,  in  teaching  the  noun,  for  instance,  it  is  important 
that  the  pupil  first  grasp  the  idea  that  all  objects  have 
names,  and  that  these  names  may  all  be  classed  under 
one  division  of  words;  the  second  step  is  to  teach  the 
name-word  or  noun;  and,  lastly,  to  give  such  a  defini- 
tion as  is  clear  to  the  mind  of  the  child. 

3.  Language  is  Learned  most  Readily  by  Use.— This  is 
in  accordance  with  the  law  of  growth  by  exercise.  The 
pujnl,  therefore,  should  not  only  learn  the  name  and  the 
definition,  but  the  teacher  should  see  that  the  pupil  also 
has  daily  exercise  in  making  an  application  of  his 
newly-acquired  knowledge.  He  should  not  only  be 
required  to  select  the  words  answering  to  the  definitions 
learned,  but  as  soon  as  the  idea  of  a  sentence  has  been 
developed  he  should  have  practical  exercise  in  the  con- 
struction of  sentences. 

4.  Language  is  the  Basis  of  Grammar.— Grammar  does 
not  make  language:  it  is  simply  a  record  of  the  usage 
of  lamniage  as  found  in  the  speech  and  writings  of  the 
best  iruthors.     It  is  the  office  of  the  grammarian  to  for- 


180  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

mulate  the  laws  which  seem  to  have  governed  the  most 
re])utable  writers  and  speakers  in  their  use  of  language, 
as  well  as  the  laws  on  which  the  science  of  grammai 
is  based.  A  series  of  language-lessons,  therefore,  natu- 
rally precedes  technical  instruction  in  the  science  of 
grammar. 

5.  Teaching  in  Language  should  be  Systematic. — While 
it  is  true  that  many  eloquent  orators  have  spoken  and 
many  eminent  authors  have  written  without  possessing 
a  technical  knowledge  of  grammar,  it  is  equally  true 
that  the  study  of  language  through  the  models  of  others 
was  to  them  a  life-work.  Xot  all  have  the  time  or  the 
leisure,  or  even  the  inclination,  to  study  systematically 
and  critically  the  model  literary  productions  of  either 
the  ancient  classic  writers  or  those  of  our  own  language 
in  order  to  develop  literary  ability  in  ourselves.  It  is 
necessary,  therefore,  that  we  should  understand  the  pi-in- 
ciples  of  the  science  of  grammar,  and  tliat  we  shonld 
have  ability  to  apjjly  these  principles  in  the  use  of  lan- 
guage. Any  preliminary  work,  therefore,  in  the  nature 
of  language-lessons  should  be  systematic,  and  be  in  strict 
harmony  with  the  principles  to  be  taught  subsequently. 
Every  lesson  given  should  have  an  aim,  and  the  work 
should  be  systematic  from  the  beginning. 

6.  Oral  and  Written  Language  should  Proceed  Simulta- 
neously.— Of  course  the  child  will  learn  to  talk  some 
years  before  it  will  be  able  to  express  itself  on  paper. 
When,  however.  It  has  once  learned  to  write  it  should 
be  taught  to  write  every  sentence  that  It  expresses  orally. 
Oral  language-lessons  without  the  written  work  are  but 
partially  effective  in  giving  to  the  pupil  correct  lan- 
guage-culture. 


LANGUAGE-LESSONS   AND   GUAMMAR. 


181 


II.  Method  of  Teaching  Language-Lessons. 

The  extended  plan  here  given  may  be  ful lowed  in 
leachino-  ]ano;aage-lessons  methodically.  It  is  snbstan- 
tially  that  developed  by  the  author  in  his  work  Lessons 
in  EngUsh. 

Begin  with  a  Picture.— Tlie  teacher  may  present  a 
picture  before  his  class,  and  let  the  pupils  examine  it 
for  a  short  time.  He  should  then  talk  freely  and  in 
an  interesting  way  to  his  pupils  about  the  picture,  the 
objects  represented  in  it,  what  they  seem  to  be  doing, 
etc.  Having  once  aroused  the  children's  interest,  he 
may  ask  a  number  of  questions  about  the  picture,  tu 
which  the  pupils  may  write  answers. 

The  next  step  is  to  have  the  pupils  write  about  objects 
seen  in  the  picture.  The  teacher  should  also  act  as  a 
guide,  directing  the  pupils  at  first  what  to  do.  Thus, 
Write  something  about  a  boy  ;  Write  something  about  a 
tree;  Write  something  about  a  dog;  and  thus  with  regard 
to  other  objects  represented  in  the  picture. 

Copy  Sentences. — Before  the  child  knows  what  sentences 
are,  let  him  copy  sentences.  See  that  he  copies  correctly, 
using  at  first  only  declarative  sentences.  After  having 
copied  sentences  for  an  exercise  or  two,  teach  him  that 
a  sentence  says  something  about  some  object.  Then 
question  him  on  the  sentences  copied,  as  to  what  object 
is  spoken  of  in  each  sentence. 

The  Capital  Letter. — Having  gained  some  notion  of 
what  a  sentence  is,  call  the  pupil's  attention  to  the  sen- 
tence as  be  has  written  it  and  ask  him,  "  With  what  does 
each  sentence  begin  ?"  At  this  point  he  may  be  taught 
the  rule, "  Every  sentence  should  begin  with  a  capital  letter;" 


182  METHODS  OF   TEACHING. 

and  from  this  point  on  he  should  never  be  permitted  to 
violate  that  rule,  and  his  attention  should  be  called  to 
the  rule  wherever  a  mistake  is  noticed  in  any  of  his 
exercises. 

Tlie  Names  of  Objects. — Pupils  may  also  be  taught  at 
this  point  that  '^Anytldng  we  can  hear,  see,  touch,  taste, 
smell,  or  think  about  may  be  called  an  Object."  They 
should  then  be  required  to  copy  more  sentences,  and 
name  tlie  object  spoken  about  in  each.  They  may  also 
be  required  to  write  the  names  of  objects  in  columns; 
thus,  the  names  of  ten  objects  in  the  school-room,  ten 
objects  found  on  the  farm,  ten  found  in  the  woods,  etc. 

Definition  of  a  Sentence. — The  pupil,  having  learned 
that  a  sentence  says  something  about  some  object,  should 
be  required  to  write  a  number  of  sentences  about  objects 
named  by  the  teacher,  the  latter  being  careful  to  select 
such  words  as  school,  chair,  fire,  trees,  and  others  familiar 
to  the  pujjils.  It  will  be  the  proper  time  now  also  to 
teach  the  definition  of  a  sentence,  that  it  is  "A  thought 
expressed  in  words." 

Immediately  following  this,  a  number  of  expressions 
should  be  placed  on  the  board,  and  the  pupils  be  exer- 
cised in  determining  which  are  sentences,  and  which  not, 
also  crivinsr  the  reason  whv  each  is  or  is  not  a  sentence. 

Definition  of  a  Noun. — The  i)upil  may  be  required  to 
complete  a  number  of  sentences  by  inserting  the  name 
of  an  object  in  such  expressions  as  follow : 


swim. 


run.  skate. 


The  pupil  may  now  be  taught  that  tlie  name  of  an 
object  is  called  a  Noun,  and  the  simple  definition  may 
also  be  given :  "  A  Noun  is  the  name  of  anythinrj." 


LAXGUAGE-LESSONS   AND    GEAMMAR.  183 

Selecting  Nouns. — Immediately  after  learning  the  name 
and  the  definition,  pupils  may  be  exercised  in  their  read- 
ing-books or  a  new8]iaper  in  selecting  all  the. nouns  in  a 
line  or  a  sentence,  telling  why  each  is  a  noun. 

The  Subject  of  a  Sentence. — In  developing  the  idea  of 
the  subject  of  a  sentence  the  teacher  should  first  require 
pupils  to  write  a  number  of  sentences  about  various  ob- 
jects which  they  may  see  in  a  picture  or  which  the  teacher 
may  name  to  them.  They  may  then  be  taught  that  "/ji 
a  sentence  thcd  about  which  something  is  said  is  called  the. 
Subject."  The  Subject  may  then  be  defined,  "  The  Sub- 
ject of  a  sentence  is  that  about  ichich  sometJiing  is  said 
or  asserted." 

Exercises  on  selecting  subjects  in  giving  simple  sen- 
tences should  be  required,  and  pu[)ils  should  also  be 
required  to  complete  sentences  by  supplying  subjects,  as 
'n  the  following  expressions  and  many  similar  ones  : 

run.  cry.  freezes. 

bite.  play.  sing. 

The  Predicate  of  a  Sentence. — In  developing  the  idea 
of  the  Predicate  the  plan  is  much  similar  to  that  of 
teaching  the  subject.  The  pupils  having  written  a 
number  of  sentences,  may  be  told  that  "In  a  sentence 
that  ichich  is  said  or  asserted  of  the  subject  is  ccdled  the 
Predicate."  Tiie  definition  of  the  Predicate  may  fol- 
low :  "  llie  Predicate  of  a  sentence  is  that  which  is  said 
or  asserted  of  the  subject." 

Exercises  should  then  follow  in  selecting  predicates  and 
subjects  from  given  sentences,  and  further  exercises  in  sup- 
plying predicates  in  expressions  similar  to  the  following: 

Snow .  Boys .  Teachers . 

Eobins  .  Girls .  Rats . 


184  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

DiagTamming. — Pupils  will  take  great  delight  in  dia- 
gramming or  written  analysis  if  properly  taugiit  and  a 
simple  system  be  used.  The  author  prefers  the  plan  he 
gives  in  the  following  exercises,  because  pupils  write 
naturally  across  the  page,  and  because  it  is  the  simplest 
possible.  Let  the  learners,  as  soon  as  they  can  distin- 
guish predicate  from  subject,  indicate  their  work  on  the 
board  as  follows,  the  upper  left-hand  space  being  used 
for  the  subject,  and  the  lower  space  to  the  left  of  the 
perpendicular  for  the  predicate: 


Horses 
run. 


Lambs 
bleat. 


Cats    I  Boys 

mew.  I  sing. 


The  whole  class  can  in  this  way  place  the  entire  lesson 
on  the  board,  and  they  enjoy  the  work. 

Oral  Analysis. — Oral  analysis  should  always  accom- 
pany written  analysis.  Written  analysis  is  useful  mainly 
on  account  of  the  interest  it  creates,  and  because,  like 
written  arithmetic,  it  is  a  great  time-saver.  The  pupils, 
having  placed  the  sentences  on  the  board  as  above  indi- 
cated, may  take  a  pointer,  and,  pointing  to  the  written 
sentence  Horses  run,  may  analyze  as  follows : 

Horses  run  is  a  sentence,  because  it  is  a  thought  expressed  in 
words. 

Horses  is  the  subject,  because  it  is  that  about  whiv^h  some- 
thing is  said. 

Eun  is  the  predicate,  because  it  is  that  which  is  said  of  the 
subject  Horses. 

Subjects  and  Predicates. — A  number  of  exercises  should 
be  given  not  only  in  selecting  subjects  and  predicates, 
but  also  in  supplying  either  as  called  for.  Thus,  the 
teacher  may  name  the  word  Boys,  and   require   each. 


LANGUAGE-LESSONS   AND   GRAMMAR.  1S5 

menibei'  of  the  class  to  name  a  diiferent  predicate,  or 
he  may  give  the  word  j)lay,  and  require  each  member 
of  tlie  chiss  to  name  a  different  subject  from  those  given 
bv  others. 

The  Declarative  Sentence.— The  pupil's  comprehension 
of  a  sentence  by  this  time  will  be  reasonably  clear,  and 
he  may  now  be  taught  that  ^^  Any  sentence  that  says 
something  may  be  called  a  Saying  Sentence  or  a  Declara- 
tive Sentence."  His  attention  should  be  called  also  to  the 
fact  that  a  period  follows  every  declarative  sentence,  and 
he  may  be  required  to  commit  to  memory  the  rule  that 
"A  period  should  be  placed  after  every  declarative  sentence.'^ 

The  Modified  Subject— The  pupil  should  be  taught 
early  that  the  subject  may  consist  of  several  words,  as, 
Some  boys  learn  ;  The  old  horse  limps ;  and  in  order  that 
they  may  continue  the  written  analysis  they  may  be 
taught  to  place  the  sentences  on  the  board  as  follows, 
■where  the  modifiers  are  always  placed  as  near  to  the 
right  of  the  words  they  modify  as  possible: 

The 


boys 
learn. 


Some  , 

noi-se 


limps. 


old 


They  should  also  be  required  to  name  the  entire  subject, 
and  to  write  sentences  containing  modified  subjects,  never 
forgetting  the  use  of  capital  letters  and  the  period. 

Additional  exercises  may  be  given  by  placing  a  num- 
ber of  adjectives,  noun.s,  and  verbs  in  separate  columns, 
and  having  the  pupils  select  such  to  be  used  together  as 
are  appropriate. 

The  Modified  Predicate.— The  pupil  may  be  taught  also 
that  the  predicate  may  consist  of  more  than  one  word ; 


18G  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

as,  They  came  soon;  The  wind  blew  fierce! j.  These  also 
should  be  analyzed  on  the  board,  the  same  principles  as 
lieretofore  explained  being  observed: 


They 
came 


wind 
soon.  blew 


The 
fiercely. 


Pupils  should  now  name  the  entire  predicate,  as  well 
as  the  entire  subject.  They  should  also  write  easy  sen- 
tences in  which  both  subject  and  predicate  are  modified, 
and  also  be  required  to  select  appropriate  words  to  form 
sentences  where  such  words  are  arranired  in  columns  as 
adjectives,  nouns,  verbs,  and  adverbs. 

The  Interrogative  Sentence. — Having  learned  the  use 
of  the  declarative  sentence,  and  having  learned  that 
either  subject  or  predicate  may  consist  of  a  number  of 
words,  the  pupils  may  be  taught  that  "Every  sentence  that 
asks  a  question  is  called  a  Question  Sentence  or  an  Inter- 
rogative Sentence."  The  pupils'  attention  should  be  called 
to  the  fact  that  every  interrogative  sentence  is  followed 
by  an   interrogation-point. 

Declarative  and  Interrogative. — As  soon  as  pupils  have 
been  tauffht  to  distin(>;uish  between  declarative  and  inter- 
rogative  sentences  they  should  be  required  to  select  sen- 
tences in  their  Keaders,  telling  whicii  are  interrogative 
and  which  declarative. 

They  should  also  write  a  number  of  sentences  at  the 
teacher's  dictation,  beginning  each  with  a  capital  letter, 
and  putting  a  period  or  an  interrogation-point  after  each 
as  may  be  required. 

They  should  be  required  also  to  change  declarative 
sentences  to  interrogative.  Thus,  ''School  was  dis- 
missed   \t  noon" — "Was  school  dismissed  at  noon?" 


LANGUAGE-LESSONS   AND    GRAMMAR.  187 

Tlicy  should  also  be  required  to  change  interrogative 
sentences  to  declarative,  writing  each  properly.  Thus, 
"Is  it  very  pleasant  to-day?" — "It  is  very  pleasant 
to-day." 

The  exercise  may  be  varied  by  the  teacher's  partici- 
pating in  the  lesson,  sometimes  giving  a  question  and 
sometimes  an  answer,  while  the  pupils  write  the  cor- 
responding answer  or  question. 

The  Verb. — In  teaching  the  Verb  it  is  best  to  use  only 
such  verbs  at  first  as  express  action.  A  short  sentence 
mav  be  taken,  as  "  The  bird  flies"  and  the  teacher  may 
ask  a  question  similar  to  the  following:  "What  word 
shows  what  the  bird  does  ?"  The  pupil  answers,  "  Flies." 
The  teacher  may  also  ask,  "  What  word  shows  action  ?" 
He  may  then  explain  that  words  which  express  action 
arc  called  verbs.  This  may  be  followed  by  the  def- 
inition of  a  verb,  though  it  is  not  the  full  defini- 
tion, that  "A  verb  is  a  word  which  expresses  action  or 
being." 

Suggestions. — 1.  The  pupil  should  next  be  exercised  on 
naming  verbs  in  sentences  given. 

2.  He  should  be  required  to  select  from  his  reading- 
lesson  such  verbs  as  he  may  recognize. 

3.  He  may  be  exercised  also  in  pointing  out  both  verbs 
and  nouns  from  a  short  poem  or  other  selection,  and  be 
required  to  write  the  nouns  in  one  column  and  the  verbs 
in  another. 

4.  The  child  should  be  taught  that  a  verb  may  consist 
of  one  word  or  more ;  as,  sing,  may  have  sung. 

5.  The  child  shculd  also  be  exercised  in  practical  com- 
position, by  being  required  to  take  certain  words  that 


188  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

express  action  and  construct  sentences  to  be  submitted 
at  the  next  recitation. 

Tlie  Adjective. — Tn  teacliing  the  Adjective  the  teacher 
should  show  that  sometimes  a  word  is  placed  before  a 
noun  to  tell  what  kind  of  object  is  meant;  as, good  boys, 
little  bovs,  bad  bovs.  The  teacher  mav  show  that  the 
Avords  good,  little,  and  bad  show  the  kind  of  boys  meant. 
The  teacher  may  then  name  another  word,  as  7-00/71,  and 
let  the  pupils  select  a  number  of  appropriate  words 
to  place  before  it.  These,  he  explains  to  them,  are 
adjectives. 

Suggestions. — 1.  It  is  best  to  use  only  such  adjectives 
at  first  as  denote  quality. 

2.  The  pupils  should  first  be  required  to  point  out  the 
adjectives  in  a  list  of  sentences  prepared  by  the  teacher. 

3.  They  should  be  required  to  write  adjectives  to  limit 
such  nouns  as  the  teacher  may  name.  His  part  of  the 
exercise  maybe  placed  on  the  board  as  follows: 

boys.         men.         house. 

trees.         hay.  birds. 


4.  The  teacher  may  assign  a  number  of  nouns,  and 
have  the  pupils  write  as  many  adjectives  as  possible 
descriptive  of  each  object  named. 

5.  The  teacher  may  train  his  pupils  to  see  also  that 
some  adjectives,  as  a,  the.  Jive,  etc.,  do  not  denote  quality, 
but  simply  limit  the  nouns  before  which  they  are  placed. 

6.  After  having  become  expert  in  pointing  out  adjec- 
tives in  sentences  wherever  met  with,  the  pupil  may  be 
required  to  memorize  the  definition. 

7.  The  pupil  may  also  be  taught  that  when  a  word 


LAXGUAGE-LESSOXS   AND    GRAMMAR.  189 

limits  or  qualifies  the  meauing  of  another,  the  limiting 
or  qualifying  word  may  be  called  a  modifier. 

8.  He  should  then  be  directed  to  Avrite  modifiers  of 
subjects,  instead  of  the  blanks  placed  ou  the  board  by 
the  teacher,  as  in  the  following : 

leaves  fall,  pencil  was  broken, 

— addimr  either  one  or  more  modifvinir  words,  as  Autumn 
leaves  fall,  Tlie  new  pencil  Mas  broken. 

9.  The  an;ilysis  of  these  sentences  should  be  both  oral 
and  written,  ihc  written  form  being  as  follows : 


leaves 
fall. 


The 
new 


Autumn  pencil 

•was  broken. 

The  Prououii. — In  teaching  the  Pronoun  it  may  be  ex- 
plained  to  the  pupil  that  instead  of  repeating  the  same 
noun  so  frequently,  we  may  substitute  another  \vord 
meanino;  the  same  thino;.  Thus,  instead  of  using  the 
name  Henry  in  the  following, land  saying,  "Henry  found 
Henry's  knife,"  ask  the  pupil  to  use  a  word  in  place  of 
Henry  as  if  it  were  his  own  name,  and  he  will  say,  "I 
found  my  knife,"  or  in  speaking  to  another,  ''You  found 
your  knife,"  or  in  speaking  of  another,  "  He  found  his 
knife." 

Suggestions. — 1.  Give  the  pupils  a  number  of  sentences 
in  M'hich  the  same  noun  is  so  frequently  re])eated  as  to 
produce  an  unpleasantness  of  sound,  as,  "  John  gave 
John's  box  to  John's  teacher,"  etc.,  and  let  the  pupil 
substitute  pronouns  instead. 

2.  Let  the  pupil  point  out  the  pronouns  in  given 
sentences,  and  name  the  word,  wherever  possible,  for 
which  the  pronoun  is  a  substitute. 

3.  Let  the  pupil  write  pronouns  in  such  sentences, 


190 


METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 


containing  blanks,  as  the  teacher  may  give,  as  in  the  fol- 
lowins : 


Both  Henry  and 


sister  are  pleased  with 


books. 


4,  Teach  here  that  the  pronoun  I  is  always  a  capital 
letter. 


The  Adverb. — In  teachins:  the  Adverb  it  is  best  to  con- 
fine  the  first  lessons  to  the  teachino:  of  such  words  as 
answer  the  questions  iiZbit' ?    Whenf  or  Where? 

It  may  be  shown  to  the  pupil  that  often  a  verb  is 
modified  by  a  word  which  answers  one  of  these  ques- 
tions; as, 

The  bird  flies  rapidbj.     (How  ?) 
The  bird  flies  vpvmrd.     (Where?) 
The  bird  flies  Jiow.     (When?) 

The  pupils  may  be  taught  that  all  words  that  tell  liow, 
when,  or  where  something  is  done  are  called  adverbs. 

Suggestions. — 1.  Let  the  teacher  give  the  pupils  short 
sentences  in  which  the  verb  may  be  limited  by  a  number 
of  adverbs.  It  may  be  placed  on  the  board  as  follows, 
the  pupil  writing  the  adverbs  : 


The  bird  flies 


now. 

rai>idly. 

away. 

upward. 

well. 

u;racefullr. 


2.  Those    sentences    may    then    be   diagrammed    or 
analyzed  in  writincr    as  follows: 


bird 
flics 


The 


uow. 


bird 

flies 


The 
away. 


3.  In  a  similar  manner  the  pupil  may  be  taught  thai 


LANGUAGE-LESSONS    ANT)   GRAMMAR.  191 

sometimes  au  adverb  itself  is  modified,  as  in  the  sentence, 
"  The  horse  runs  very  rapidly." 

4.  Let  the  pupil  indicate  the  modifving  power  of  the 

word  vci'y  hy  writing  the  sentence  as  follows,  placing  the 

modifier  to  the  right  of  the  word  which  it  modifies: 

horse    The 

runs    rapidly.  |  very 

5.  The  pupils  mav  now  be  taught  that  words  which 
are  used  to  modify  adverbs  are  also  called  adverbs. 

6.  Show  the  child  that  an  adjective  may  also  be 
modified,  as  very  tall,  extremely  cold,  etc. 

7.  Let  a  number  of  sentences  be  given  from  which 
the  ]ni})il  may  select  not  only  the  adjectives,  but  also  the 
Avords  which  modify  these  adjectives. 

8.  Tiie  pui)ils  should  have  exercise  also  in  inserting  ad- 
verbial modifiers  of  adverbs  and  adjectives  in  given  sen- 
tences. Tliese  sentences  should  then  be  analyzed,  both 
orally  and  by  the  written  plan.     The  written  form  may 

stand  as  follows : 

A 

iunocent  |  perfectly 

greatly.  |  very 

9.  At  this  stage  the  general  definition  of  an  adverb 
mav  be  given  as  follows:  An  Adverb  is  a  word  used  to 
modify  the  meaning  of  a  verb,  an  adjective,  or  an  adverb. 

10.  Columns  may  now  be  arranged,  the  first  contain- 
ing nouns  and  pronouns;  the  second,  verbs;  tlie  third, 
adjectives ;  and  the  fourth,  adverbs.  From  these  the 
pupils  should  be  directed  to  select  words  and  construct 
sentences. 

11.  The  correct  use  cf  a  before  consonant-sounds,  and 
an  before  vowel-sound.s,  as  also  the  proper  use  of  those 


mau 


suffered 


192  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

iiistciul  of   tliem   when   placed    before   nouns,    may    be 
taught  at  this  time. 

The  Preposition. — The  Preposition  may  be  taught 
readily  by  the  teacher's  taking  two  objects — as,  for  in- 
stance, a  pencil  and  a  booh — and  placing  them  in  differ- 
ent positions,  then  leading  the  pupils  to  name  the  words 
Avhich  show  relation. 

Thus,  "  The  pencil  lies  on  the  book ; "  "  The  pencil 
lies  in  the  book;"  "The  pencil  lies  under  the  book." 
Let  the  pupil  in  each  case  show  what  word  expresses 
the  relation  between  lies  and  book. 

The  pupil  may  be  taught  that  all  "VA-wrds  that  show  the 
relation  between  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  and  some  preceding 
word  is  a  preposition. 

Following  this,  he  may  be  taught  the  definition  of  a 
preposition. 

He  may  also  be  taught  that  the  preposition  with  the 
noun  following  it  modifies  some  preceding  word;  as, 
drops  of  rain,  flashes  of  lightning. 

Suggestions. — 1.  Let  the  pupils  be  required  to  point 
out  prepositions  in  given  sentences. 

2.  Let  the  pupils  show  what  each  phrase,  consisting 
of  the  preposition  and  its  object,  modifies. 

3.  Let  sentences  be  written  in  which  the  preposition  is 
omitted  for  the  pupil  to  supply. 

4.  Let  nouns  or  verbs  be  given  as  below,  to  which  the 
pupils  may  add  proper  modifying  phrases : 

r  of  sunlight.  f  over  the  house 


of  pleasure 


into  the  window. 


Days  \  of  jieace.  flies  -   from  the  tree 


of  plenty. 
^  of  misery. 


in  the  air. 
along  the  stream. 


LANGU^  GE-LESSOXS   AND    GRAM^rAE.  193 

5.  Let  the  pupil  substitute  phrases  for  adjective  mod- 
ifiers in  a  number  of  sentences;  as,  marble  steps = steps  of 
marble. 

6.  Let  the  pupils  be  exercised  in  changing  phrases  to 
single  words;  as,  men  of  icisdom  =  unse  men. 

7.  In  written  analysis  let  the  preposition  and  its  object 
be  written  together,  as  in  the  following  sentence:  "The 
moon  looks  down  on  many  beautiful  scenes." 


moon 
looks 


The 

down 

I  many 
beautiful 


8.  Let  the  pupils  be  required  to  construct  sentences 
containing  in,  into,  at,  on,  between,  among,  and  other 
prepositions. 

9.  Give  careful  drill  on  the  correct  distinction  between 
in  and  into,  between  and  among,  to  and  at. 

The  Conj unction. — The  Conjunction  may  readily  be 
tauo^ht  bv  writino'  a  number  of  expressions  on  the 
board,  as  "Rats  and  mice  gnaw,"  and  leading  the  pupil 
to  distinguish  what  word  joins  other  words,  it  may  be 
taught  also  by  ])ractical  exercises,  wherein  the  pupil  is 
directed  to  combine  expressions,  as  in  the  two  sentences, 
"John  can  sing"  and  "Henry  can  sing,"  equivalent 
to  "John  and  Henry  can  sing." 

The  pupils  will  readily  learn  that  conjunctions  join 
or  connect,  and  they  may  then  be  taught  the  formal 
definition,  and  the  teacher  may  show  that  phrases  or 
sentences,  as  well  as  single  words,  are  connected  by 
conjunctions. 

Suggestions. — 1.  Let  pupils  be  required  to  point  out 
13 


194  METHODS   OF  TEACHING. 

PODJ unctions  in  sentences  where  they  connect  words,  and 
show  \vhat  words  are  connected. 

2.  Let  them  select  conjunctions  connecting  phrases  or 
clauses. 

3.  I^et  the  pupils  supply  omitted  conjunctions  in  sen- 
tences written  by  tlie  teacher. 

4.  Have  them  combine  sentences  so  as  to  use  conjunc- 
tions, instead  of  repeating  the  parts  of  sentences;  as,  "I 
can  read  and  write,"  for  "I  can  read"  and  "I  can  write," 

5.  Teach  here  the  use  of  the  comma  to  indicate  the 
omission  of  the  conjunction  when  a  series  of  words,  the 
same  part  of  speech,  follow  one  another. 

6.  Teach  that  when  the  conjunction  connects  two  sub- 
jects, the  two  subjects  become  one,  and  that  this  is  called 
a  compound  subject,  as  "  John  and  James  recite." 

7.  Teach  also  that  when  the  conjunction  connects  two 
or  more  predicates,  these  predicates  become  one,  and  that 
this  is  called  a  compound  predicate;  as,  "Girls  read,  write, 
and  play." 

The  Interjection. — In  teaching  the  Interjection  children 
may  be  led  to  repeat  a  few  sentences  showing  emotion,  and 
then  be  required  to  name  the  word  in  each  sentence  show- 
ing joy,  sadness,  etc.,  as  in  the  following:  "  Hurrah  for 
the  ice-pond  !"     ^'Alas!  my  poor  kitten  is  dead  !" 

The  next  step  is  to  teach  that  these  words,  which  siiow 
(hat  we  are  glad,  joyful,  sad,  etc.,  are  interjections,  and 
then  the  pupil  may  be  tauglit  the  formal  definition. 

The  pupil  should  be  taught  here  that  whenever  an 
exclamation  is  made,  as,  "  Oh  dear  !"  "  How  cold  it  is !" 
"Pshaw!"  etc.,  whether  it  consists  of  a  single  word  or 
more,  it  is  followed  by  the  exclamation-point  ( ! ). 


LANGUAGE-LESSOXS   AND   GRAMMAR.  195 

He  may  also  be  taught  that  when  such  an  exclamation 
is  a  full  sentence  it  is  called  an  exdamaiory  sentence. 

He  may  also  be  taught  now  that  ^vhen  a  command  or 
an  entreaty  is  made  the  sentence  expressing  it  is  called  an 
imperative  sentence. 

Suggestions. — 1.  Let  the  pupil  point  out  interjections 
wherever  found  in  given  sentences. 

2.  Let  the  pupil  punctuate  by  placing  the  exclamation- 
point  at  the  proper  place  in  such  sentences  as  the  teacher 
may  give. 

3.  Let  the  pupil  be  exercised  in  determining  between 
exclamatory  and  imperative  sentences,  placing  a  period 
after  the  imperative  sentence  whenever  found. 

4.  Let  the  pupil  have  exercise  in  writing  the  various 
kinds  of  sentences,  declarative,  interrogative,  exclama- 
tory, and  imperative,  punctuating  each  correctly. 

5.  Teach  that  the  word  O  is  always  written  as  a 
capital  letter. 

6.  The  written  analysis  of  sentences  containing  con- 
junctions and  interjections,  which  never  modify  other 
words,  and  are  never  modified,  may  be  indicated  as 
follows,  where  dotted  lines  are  placed  under  the  con- 
junctions and  the  interjections : 


fireman 


attended 


The  Hark! 

cool  -~.^^^  yon 

and        ^^  "■ 

courageous  '        ^o  liear 


,  the 
™^^^^"' of  thunder?  I  the 


to  duty.  I  his 

7.  AVrlte  sentences  without  any  punctuation-marks  or 
capital  letters,  and  require  the  pupils  to  put  them  in 
proper  form. 

8.  Give  a  full  and  thorough  review  of  all  the  parta 


196  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

of  speech,  with  the  rules  for  punctuation  and  capital 
letters,  as  far  as  taught. 

Subdivisions  of  Parts  of  Speech. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  in  all  the  previous  lessons  we 
lave  dealt  with  the  parts  of  speech  and  such  incidental 
instruction  only  as  the  child  could  fully  comprehend  and 
apply  in  the  construction  of  sentences.  The  number  of 
definitions  has  been  very  small,  though  the  course  indi- 
cated would  cover  three  or  four  months'  work. 

The  second  general  step  in  teaching  a  course  of  lan- 
guage-lessons should  include  the  chief  subdivisions  of 
the  parts  of  speech,  together  Avith  such  incidental  in- 
struction as  will  make  the  subject  both  interesting  and 
practical. 

The  aim  in  a  series  of  lano-uasje-lessons  should  be  not 
simply  to  teach  the  pupil  to  imitate  models  or  the  lan- 
guage of  others,  but  to  acquaint  him  with  the  prin- 
ciples which  he  employs  in  the  construction  of  sen- 
tences and  the  use  of  correct  speech  as  rapidly  as  he 
may  be  able  to  comprehend  them.  Any  system  of 
language-lessons  that  does  not  aim  to  give  the  pupil 
such  culture  and  instruction  as  will  make  the  subse- 
quent study  of  grammar  easier  for  him  is  radically 
defective. 

Classes  of  Nouiis. — The  chief  subdivisions  of  Nouns  to 
be  taught  are  tlie  classes  Proper  and  Common.  Pupils 
may  be  taught  that  many  objects  have  two  names,  as 
''  The  Delaware  is  a  river,"  and  that  one  of  these  is  a 
common  name  whicli,  like  the  word  river  above,  may  be 
given  to  all  objects  of  that  class. 


LANGUAGE-LESSONS   AND   GRAMMAR.  197 

Their  attention  may  be  called  to  the  fact  that  one  of 
these  names  is  such  as  is  applied  to  that  particular  object 
only,  as  the  word  Delaware  above.  We  have,  therefore, 
two  classes  of  nouns.  The  name  which  belongs  to  all  of 
a  kind,  or  is  common  to  all  of  a  kind,  is  called  a  Com- 
mon Nnin,  and  that  which  belongs  to  a  particular  object 
only,  as  the  word  Delaivare,  is  called  a  Proper  Noun. 

Followins:  this,  the  definition  of  the  common  noun  and 
that  of  the  proper  noun  should  be  taught. 

The  following  rules  for  capital  letters  should  now  be 
taught  also: 

1.  That  every  proper  noun  should  begin  with  a  capital 
letter. 

2.  That  Avlicn  a  proper  noun  consists  of  two  or  more 
words,  as  William  Henry  Johnson,  each  should  begin 
with  a  capital  letter. 

Suggestions. — 1.  Let  the  pupil  select  from  the  reading- 
book  or  from  selected  sentences  given  by  the  teacher  both 
the  proper  and  the  common  nouns. 

2.  Let  the  pupils  write  proper  nouns  omitted  from  a 
number  of  skeleton  sentences  given  by  the  teacher. 

3.  Give  the  pupils  exercises  in  writing  the  proper 
names  of  objects.     Thus, 

Five  proper  names  of  boys ; 
Five  proper  names  of  girls; 
Five  proper  names  of  cities; 
Five  proper  names  of  rivers, 
etc.,  etc. 

See  that  the  proper  rules  for  the  use  of  capital  letters 
are  applied. 

Abbreviations. — At  this  point  pupils  may  be  taught  the 


198  METHODS   OF    TEACIIIXG. 

rules  with  reference  to  abbreviations.  They  may  be 
taught  that  instead  of  writing  William  Henry  Adams 
we  may  write  W.  H.  Adams,  and  that  words  thus 
ehoftened  are  called  "abbrevMations." 

Teach  liere  that  every  abbreviation  should  be  followed 
by  a  period. 

Caution  them  not  to  use  Mr.  and  Esq.  with  the  same 
name  at  the  same  time. 

Teach  also  that  abbreviations  of  proper  names,  when 
single  letters,  are  always  ca])ita]s. 

Teach  that  the  names  of  the  months,  the  days  of  the 
week,  and  important  events,  but  not  the  seasons,  all 
begin  with  capital  letters. 

Teach  the  abbreviation  of  the  names  of  the  months 
and  the  days  of  the  week ;  also  such  abbreviations  as 
A.  D.,  A.  J/.,  B.  a,  M.,  M.  D.,  P.  31.,  P.  0.,  P.  P., 
U.  S.,  etc. 

Suggestions. — 1.  Let  pupils  abbreviate  such  names  as 
they  are  familiar  with;  as,  George  Washington  Adams, 
Henry  Clay  Peters,  etc. 

2.  Let  them  write  their  own  names  and  the  names  of 
their  associates  properly  abbreviated. 

3.  Teach  them  to  write  the  abbreviations  of  theii 
own  county  and  State  and  the  different  States  of  the 
Union;  also  the  different  counties  of  their  own  State. 

4.  Teach  that  abbreviations  often  consist  of  more  than 
line  letter;  as,  Pr.  for  Doctor,  Capt.  for  Captain,  Or.  for 
Credit,  etc. 

5.  Give  them  a  list  of  thirty  or  more  of  the  most 
common  abbreviations,  placing  them  on  the  blackboard, 
and  having  the  pupils  copy  them  in  manuscript  books 
for  future  reference. 


LANGUAGE-LESSOXS    AND    GE&.MMAR.  199 

6.  Give  them  frequent  exercises  iu  abbreviating  and 
punctuating  properly  the  titles,  etc.  which  you  have 
taught  to  them. 

7.  Give  your  pupils  frequent  exercises  in  writing  the 
days  of  the  week,  the  months  of  the  year,  and  important 
events. 

Classes  of  Verbs. — The  two  chief  classes  of  Verbs  to 
be  taught  are  the  Transitive  and  the  Intransitive.  It  is 
necessary  to  teach  the  distinction  between  the  two,  be- 
cause the  transitive  verb  is  the  only  one  which  is 
followed  by  an  objective  modifier. 

The  Transitive  Verb. — In  teachino;  the  transitive  verb 
a  sentence  like  the  following,  "Cats  can  catch  mice," 
may  be  taken.  The  pupil  points  out  the  verb,  and  he 
is  led  to  see  that  the  verb  is  followed  by  a  noun ;  also 
that  if  the  noun  be  removed  the  sentence  will  not 
make  sense.  He  may  then  be  taught  that  a  verb  which 
does  not  make  sense  without  placing  a  noun  or  a  pro- 
noun after  it,  or  which  represents  an  action  as  passing 
from  one  object  to  another,  is  a  Transitive  Verb. 

He  may  be  taught  also  that  when  a  verb  makes  sense 
without  an  object,  as  in  the  sentence,  "  Ice  melts,"  or 
when  no  action  is  represented  as  passing  from  one  object 
to  another,  the  verb  is  Intransitive. 

Suggestions. — 1.  Let  the  verbs  in  certain  sentences  be 
omitted,  and  require  the  pupils  to  insert  transitive  verbs. 

2.  In  a  similar  way  let  the  pupil  be  required  to  insert 
intransitive  verbs. 

3.  Have  pupils  select  the  verbs  in  given  sentences  and 
tell  \vliether  they  are  transitive  or  intransitive,  and  why. 

4.  Have   easy  sentences   containing   transitive    verbs 


200  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

analyzed  orallv  and   in  Aviitino-.     Let  the  written  form 
be  as  follows : 

The 
boy 

thirsty 

drank    water.  |  some 

5.  Teach  tliat  the  modifiers  of  intransitive  verbs  are 
adverbial,  and  that  the  modifiers  of  transitive  verbs  are 
cither  adverbial  or  objective. 

6.  Let  the  pupils  be  required  to  write  a  number  of 
objective  modifiers  in  given  sentences. 

7.  Let  the  pupils  be  required  to  write  adverbial 
modifiers  where  omitted  in  given  sentences. 

Classes  of  Adjectives. — The  two  chief  classes  of  Ad- 
jectives to  be  taught  in  connection  with  language-lessons 
are  the  Qualifying  and  the  Limiiinc/. 

The  learner  may  be  taught  that  any  adjective  that 
names  a  quality,  as  good,  bad,  wise,  old,  etc.,  is  called 
a  Qualifyirig  Adjective;  also,  that  when  an  adjective  does 
not  name  a  quality  it  is  called  a  Limiting  Adjective.  He 
may  be  taught  that  to  this  class  belong  numeral  adjec- 
tives, articles,  and  pronominal  adjectives,  each  of  which 
the  teacher  should  carefully  explain. 

Suggestions. — 1.  Let  the  pupil  select  qualifying  adjec- 
tives from  given  sentences. 

2.  Let  the  pupil  select  limiting  adjectives  from  given 
sentences. 

3.  Let  the  pupil  select  adjectives  and  tell  whether  they 
are  limiting  or  qualifying,  and  why. 

4.  liCt  the  pupil  be  required  to  write  appropriate 
adjectives  before  given  words,  and  tell  whether  they 
are  limiting  or  qualifying. 


LAKGUAGE-LESSONS    AND    GRAMMAR.  201 

5.  After  having  tauglit  that  4{h,  7'lh,  '2(1,  ere.  are  not 
properly  abbreviations,  and  tliat  they  should  not  be  fol- 
lowed by  periods,  give  the  piii)iis  exercises  iu  writing 
similar  expressions;  as,  June  17tli,   1864. 

6.  Teach  the  use  of  tliis  and  tlud  in  tlie  singular, 
Avitli  tlicir  corresponding  plurals  these  and  those,  giving 
sentences  for  correction,  and  asking  for  original  sentences 
in  which  the  words  are  correctly  used. 

7.  Teach  the  correct  use  of  either  and  neither  in  speak- 
ing of  two,  and  of  any  and  none  in  speaking  of  more  than 
tM'o.  Give  the  pupil  practice  in  the  correction  of  sen- 
tences containing  these  words  used  improperly.  Also, 
require  original  sentences  iu  which  the  words  are  prop- 
erly used. 

8.  Teach  that  any  adjective  made  from  a  proper  noun 
is  a  proper  adjective,  and  that  it  should  begin  with  a  cai> 
ital  letter. 

9.  Have  pupils  construct  proper  adjectives  from  given 
proper  nouns ;  as,  America,  France,  etc. 

10.  Have  pupils  write  the  nouns  from  which  given 
proper  adjectives,  as  Grecian,  Chinese,  Mosaic,  etc.,  are 
constructed. 

11.  Have  pupils  write  adjectives  derived  from  given 
names;  as,  fear,  fearful,  fearless. 

12.  Let  pupils  name  the  nouns  from  which  certain 
adjectives  are  formed  ;  as,  heroic,  hero. 

13.  Let  the  pupils  give  definitions  of  qualifying,  lim- 
iting, numeral,  pronominal,  and  proper  adjectives. 

Classes  of  Pronouns. — The  chief  Pronouns  to  be  tauirht 
at  this  stage  are  the  Personal,  the  Relative,  and  the  Inter- 
rogative. 


202  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

Pupils  may  be  taught  tliat  such  pronouns  as  show  by 
their  form  whether  the  person  which  they  represent  is  the 
person  speaking,  the  person  spoken  to,  or  the  person  or 
the  tiling  spoken  of,  are  called  Personal  Pronouns. 

They  may  be  taught  at  this  point  that  all  names  applied 
to  the  Deity,  as  God,  Lord,  Almighty,  etc.,  as  well  as  the 
])ersonal  pronouns  which  represent  them  (when  empha- 
sized), begin  with  capital  letters. 

In  teaching  the  Relative  Pronoun  the  pupil  may  be 
required  to  copy  four  declarative  sentences  in  which  the 
words  who,  which,  what,  and  tJiat  are  correctly  nsed. 

By  means  of  these  sentences  the  pupils  may  be  taught 
also  that  who  is  used  in  speaking  of  persons,  ivhlch  in 
speaking  of  animals  and  things  without  life,  lohat  in 
speaking  of  things,  and  that  in  speaking  of  i)ersons, 
animals,  or  things. 

Sugr/cstlons. — 1.  Let  the  pupils  be  required  to  select 
personal  pronouns  from  given  sentences. 

2.  After  having  taught  that  the  relative  pronouns  are 
who,  which,  what,  and  that,  let  pupils  name  the  relatives 
in  given  sentences. 

3.  Give  sentences  in  which  the  relative  pronoun  is 
omitted,  and  have  the  pupil  supply  the  omission. 

4.  Have  the  pupil  write  a  number  of  sentences,  five 
or  more,  in  which  the  relative  pronoun  who  is  used  cor- 
rectlv;  also,  a  number  in  which  each  of  the  other  relative 
pronouns  is  correctly  used. 

5.  Let  the  pupils  be  exercised  in  the  correction  of 
sentences  in  which  the  relatives  are  improperly  used. 
Select  as  many  of  these  sentences  as  possible  from  the 
conversation  of  the  pupils  themselves.  This  will  make 
them  both  careful  and  critical  in  the  use  of  language. 


LANGUAGE-LESSONS   AND   GRAMMAR.  203 

In  teaching  the  Interrogative  Pronoun  show  that  tliere 
are  but  three,  and  that  they  are  used  only  to  ask  questions. 

Call  the  pupil's  attention  to  the  punetuation-mark  at 
the  close  of  every  sentence  beijinninsi:  with  an  interroo-a- 
tive  pronoun. 

Suggestions. — 1.  Have  the  pupils  select  the  interrogative 
pronouns  from  given  sentences. 

2.  Let  thera  sup})ly  omissions  in  interrogative  sentences 
with  the  proper  pronouns. 

General  Exercises. — 1.  Let  pupils  be  required  to  select 
any  pronouns  they  may  find  in  sentences,  and  tell  whether 
they  are  personal,  relative,  or  interrogative. 

2.  Let  pupils  be  required  to  supply  omitted  pronouns 
in  given  sentences,  and  tell  the  class  to  which  the  word 
supplied  belongs. 

3.  Let  pui)ils  be  exercised  in  constructing  sentences 
incorporating  a  certain  pronoun,  as  who  or  rvhich,  and 
show  where  it  is  used  as  an  interrogative  and  where 
as  a  relative,  and  why. 

4.  Let  the  pupils  commit  the  definitions  of  the  classes 
of  pronouns,  explain  them,  and  illustrate  them  with  orig- 
inal sentences. 

Classes  of  Adverbs.— In  teaching  the  classes  of  Adverbs 
the  jiupils  may  first  be  led  to  see  that  certain  adverbs  an- 
swer the  question  When?  others  the  question  Where  f 
etc.  They  may  then  be  taught  that  those  which  answer 
the  question  Whenf  are  called  adverbs  of  Time;  those 
which  answer  the  question  Where  f  adverbs  of  Place; 
those  which  answer  the  question  IIow  muchf  adverbs 
of  Degree;    those    which    answer   the   question    Whyf 


20i  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

adverbs  of  Cause;  and  those  which  answer  the  ques- 
tion Ilowf  adverbs  of  Manner. 

Tlie  pupils  should  then  be  required  to  select  adverbs 
from  given  sentences,  and  name  the  class  to  which  each 
belongs. 

The  pupil  may  be  taught  at  this  point  also  that  some 
adverbs  not  only  modify  other  words,  but  also  connect 
clauses,  and  that  such  adverbs  are  called  Conjunctive 
Adverbs. 

Suggestions. — 1.  Let  pupils  be  required  to  incorporate 
certain  given  adverbs  in  sentences  of  their  own  con- 
struction. 

2.  Let  pupils  be  required  to  write  an  adverb  of  any 
class  as  called  for  by  the  teacher. 

3.  Have  pupils  select  the  conjunctive  adverbs  in  given 
sentences,  and  show  what  they  modify  and  what  tliey 
connect. 

4.  Have  the  pupils  write  subordinate  clauses  to  modify 
given  clauses  with  which  they  are  connected  by  conjunc- 
tive adverbs. 

5.  Plave  the  pupils  form  adverbs  from  given  adjectives. 

6.  Let  pupils  rewrite  given  sentences,  so  that  the 
idea  expressed  by  an  adjective  may  be  expressed  by 
an  adverb  instead;  as,  "He  is  a  slow  speaker  "  =  "  He 
epeaks  slowly.'' 

7.  Let  pu])ils  rewrite  sentences  in  such  a  way  that  the 
idea  expressed  by  an  adverb  may  be  expressed  by  an  ad- 
jective instead;  as,  "John  walks  (/rcrcc/u^"  =  " John  is 
a  graceful  walker." 

8.  The  conjunctive  adverb  in  written  analysis  may  be 
indicated  by  parentheses,  as  in  the  following  sentence ' 
"  ^Ye  shall  go  when  the  train  arrives." 


LAXGUAGE-LESSOXS   AN'D   GEAMMAR.  205 


We 


shall  go 


train      |  the 
(when)  < 

arrives. 


J) 
bird 

flew 


9.  Pupils  may  be  taught  at  this  point  that  sometimes 
a  phrase  consisting  of  a  preposition  and  its  object  is  used 
instead  of  an  adverb. 

Let  the  pupil  select  or  write  such  phrases  as  indicate 
time,  place,  degree,  cause,  manner. 

In  writing  the  analysis  let  the  preposition  and  its  ob- 
ject be  placed  together,  as  follows  :  "  The  bird  flew  rap- 
idly over  the  river, 

The 

rapidly 

over  river.  |  the 

10.  Teach  that  independent  adverbs  are  such  as  have 
the  form  of  adverbs,  but  do  not  modify  any  other  word, 
as  the  words  well  and  yes  in  the  following  sentences  : 

1.  Well,  this  is  strange. 

2.  Yes,  I  shall  hear  from  him. 

Let  the  pupils  name  independent  adverbs  in  given 
sentences :  also,  have  them  construct  original  sentences 
containing  independent  adverbs. 

Classes  of  Conjunctions. — The  two  classes  of  conjunc- 
tions to  be  taught  are  Co-ordinate  and  Subordinate. 
Their  difference  is  best  shown  by  the  use  of  sentences ; 
as, 

1.  I  will  come,  and  you  may  return. 

2.  I  will  come  if  you  return. 

In  the  first  sentence  the  pupils  may  be  taught  that  the 


206  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

two  statements  connected  by  and  are  independent  of  eacli 
other,  and  that  either  may  be  used  without  the  other.  In 
the  second  sentence  tliey  may  be  taught  that  one  statement 
depends  upon  the  other. 

They  may  also  be  taught  that  statements  independent 
of  each  other  are  connected  by  co-ordinate  conjunctions, 
while  dej)endent  or  modifying  clauses  are  connected  by 
subordinate  conjunctions. 

Suggestions. — 1.  Let  the  pupils  say  whether  the  state- 
ments connected  by  conjunctions  in  given  sentences  are 
dependent  or  independent. 

2.  Have  them  point  out  conjunctions  and  state  whether 
they  are  co-ordinate  or  subordinate. 

3.  Have  them  supply  omitted  conjunctions  in  given 
sentences,  and  tell  the  class. 

4.  Let  them  write  a  number  of  sentences  containing 
co-ordinate  conjunctions. 

5.  Let  them  write  a  number  of  sentences  containing 
subordinate  conjunctions. 

6.  Teach  that  certain  conjunctions  are  used  in  jiairs, 
and  that  these  are  called  correlative  conjunctions. 

Show  a  few  of  the  most  important  correlatives,  as, 
neither  .  .  .  nor,  either  .  .  .  or,  both  .  .  .  and,  if .  .  .  then, 
ichether  .  .  .  or. 

7.  Teach  the  caution  with  regard  to  the  use  of  either 
Avith  or,  and  neither  with  nor. 

Let  the  pupils  correct  sentences  in  which  these  cor- 
relatives are.  incorrectly  used. 

General  Exercises. 

1.  Review  by  defining  all  parts  of  speech. 

2.  Review  by  defining  the  classes  of  parts  of  speech. 


LANGUAGE-LESSOXS   AND   GRAMMAR.  207 

3.  Exercise  pupils  in  selections  of  both  prose  and 
poetry,  and  have  them  name  not  only  the  part  of  speech, 
but  also  the  subdivision  or  class. 

4.  Review  all  the  rules  learned  for  the  use  of  capital 
letters. 

5.  Eeview  the  punctuation-marks  as  far  as  learned. 

6.  Apply  the  foregoing  riiles  in  practical  exercises. 

Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 
Having  taught  the  parts  of  speech  and  the  chief  classes 
into  which  they  are  divided,  together  with  the  practical 
use  of  English,  the  third  step  in  connection  with  the 
teaching  of  language-lessons  is  that  of  familiarizing  the 
learner  with  the  modifications  of  the  parts  of  speech, 
and  the  use  of  such  principles  in  practice  as  the  children 
may  be  able  to  comprehend. 

ModificatioDS  of  Nouns  and  Pronouns.— In  connection 
with  nouns  and  pronouns  it  is  necessary  to  teach  Number, 
Person,  Gender,  and  Case. 

Number. — In  teaching  Number  the  chief  point  is  to  lead 
the  child  to  distinguish  between  the  forms  of  words  which 
indicate  one  or  more  than  one.  This  is  best  done  by  show- 
ing that  when  we  say  hoy  we  mean  one  boy,  but  that  when 
we  say  boys  we  mean  more  than  one.  The  child  readily 
sees  that  the  only  change  in  the  word  in  order  to  make  it 
signify  more  than  one  is  the  addition  of  the  s. 

Suggestion. — Let  the  pupil  now  be  exercised  on  a 
number  of  words  and  tell  whether  one  is  meant  or  more 
than  one  in  each  case. 

Explain  the  meaning  and  use  of  the  words  singular 
aud  jjlural 


208  METHODS    OF    TEACHIXa. 

Show  ho"w  words  form  their  phiral  regularly;  show 
also  how  the  plural  of  words  ending  in  s,  x,  z,  cli^  sh  is 
formed. 

Suggestions. — 1.  Let  the  pupils  tell  whether  given 
words  are  singular  or  plural. 

2.  Have  them  write  the  plurals  of  given  singular 
forms. 

3.  Have  them  write  the  singular  of  given  plural 
forms. 

Teach  the  methods  of  forming  plurals  of  nouns  end- 
ing in  y;  also  o;  also  /  or /e.  Teach  also  the  most 
important  irregular  plurals ;    as,  oxen,  men,  etc. 

Suggestions. — 1.  Have  pupils  write  the  plurals  of 
given  singular  forms,  botli  regular  and  irregular. 

2.  Have  them  write  also  the  singular  of  given  plural 
forms,  both  regular  and  irregular. 

Teach  that  in  compound  nouns  the  word  M'hich  names 
the  object  is  made  plural,  as  black6o«rc?s,  goose-quills. 

Suggestion. — Let  pui)ils  write  the  plurals  of  given 
singular  compound  forms. 

Person. — In  teaching  Person  show  that  nouns  or  pro- 
nouns may  denote  the  person  speaking,  the  person  spoken 
to,  or  the  person  or  the  thing  spoken  of.  To  teach  that 
a  noun  representing  the  speaker  is  in  the  first  person, 
that  one  representing  the  person  spoken  to  is  in  the 
second  person,  etc.,  is  a  matter  of  but  little  difficulty. 

Suggestions. — 1.  Let  the  pupil  be  required  to  select 
nouns  and  pronouns  from  given  sentences,  and  name  the 
person  of  each. 

2.  Let  the  pupils  be  required  to  write  a  certain  num- 
ber of  original  sentences  in  which  the  nouns  and  the 


LANGUAGE-LESSONS   AND   GEAMMAR.  209 

pronouns  are  used  correctly  according   to   such   person 
as  the  teacher  may  direct  or  require. 

Gender. — Pupils  may  be  taught  readily  that  animals 
are  divided  into  male  and  female ;  we  thus  have  two 
sexes.  They  may  also  be  taught  that  we  have  two 
words,  masculine  which  denotes  the  names  of  males, 
and  feminine  which  denotes  the  names  of  females. 

Their  attention  may  tiien  be  directed  to  the  fact  that 
some  objects  are  neither  niale  nor  female,  and  therefore 
have  no  sex.  Nouns  which  indicate  the  names  of  those 
objects,  as  book,  chair,  etc.,  we  therefore  say  are  in  the 
neuter  gender.  In  a  similar  manner,  the  child  may  be 
led  to  apply  the  term  common  ■  gender  to  such  nouns  as 
represent  objects  whose  sex  cannot  be  determined  b_v  tlie 
form  of  the  word,  such  as  neighbor,  parent,  ov  friend. 

Suggestions. — 1.  Pupils  should  first  be  required  to 
name  the  gender  of  a  large  number  of  nouns  the 
names  of  familiar  objects. 

2.  They  should  be  required  to  give  the  feminine  form 
for  a  number  of  given  nouns  in  the  masculine. 

3.  They  should  be  required  to  give  the  masculine  form 
for  a  number  of  given  nouns  in  the  feminine. 

4.  They  should  be  required  to  write  sentences  con- 
taining a  noun  of  any  required  gender,  or  each  sen- 
tence containing  several  nouns  of  different  genders. 

These  exercises  should  be  continued  until  there  is  no 
possible  danger  of  the  pupils'  mistaking  any  one  gender 
for  another. 

Case. — Case  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  parts  of  gram- 
mar to  teach  to  the  beginner.    Much  ingenuity  is  r*  quired 
u 


210  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

to  present  the  subject  in  such  a  way  as  will  permit  the 
pupil  to  grasp  it  readily. 

It  may  be  explained  to  pupils  that  the  relation  which 
a  noua  or  a  pronoun  bears  to  other  words  is  called  Case. 
Thus,  when  it  is  used  as  the  subject  of  a  sentence  it  is 
said  to  be  in  the  Nominative  Case;  when  it  denotes 
ownership  or  possession,  in  the  Possessive  Case;  and 
when  it  is  used  after  a  proposition  or  a  transitive  verb 
to  answer  the  question  Wliomf  or  What?  it  is  said  to 
be  in  the   Objective  Case. 

Having  learned  so  much,  the  pupil  may  be  taught  not 
only  the  definition  of  case,  but  also  of  each  of  the  several 
cases. 

So  far  as  language-lessons  are  concerned,  the  important 
thing  to  be  learned  is  the  use  of  the  possessive  case,  and 
bow  to  write  it. 

The  pupil  may  be  taught  that  when  a  noun  denotes 
possession,  something  is  added  to  the  usual  form.  Thus, 
we  may  ask,  "AVhose  box  is  this?"  The  answer  will  be 
not,  "The  bov  box,"  but  "  The  boy's  box."  The  child 
distinguishes  readily  by  the  sound  that  something  has 
been  added  to  tlse  word  boy  to  make  it  boifs. 

The  next  point  is  to  show  the  })uj)il  that  the  possessive 
form  of  most  nouns  in  the  singular  is  written  by  adding 
an  apostrophe  and  the  letter  s  ('s)  to  the  nominative 
form. 

Tiie  teacher  should  then  place  a  number  of  possessive 
forms  on  the  board  as  the  pupils  dictate. 

A  second  exercise  may  consist  of  practice-work  for  the 
pupils,  in  which  a  number  of  words  are  dictated  to  them, 
and  of  which  they  are  lequirod  to  write  the  possessive 
form. 


LAXGUAGE-LESSOXS   AND   GRAMMAR.  211 

They  may  next  be  taught  that  where  the  nominative 
form  ends  in  s,  as  in  most  plurals,  the  apostrophe  alone 
is  added. 

They  may  be  taught  also  that  where  tlie  plural  does 
not  end  in  s,  the  apostropiie  and  the  s  are  both  added. 

Suggestions. — 1.  The  teacher  should  illustrate  fully  on 
the  blackboard. 

2.  The  teacher  should  write  plurals  on  the  blackboard, 
he  selecting  the  nouns,  and  the  pupils  dictating  as  to  tho 
proper  method  of  writing  the  possessive  form. 

3.  Pupils  may  be  required  to  pre})are  at  their  seats 
and  write  on  the  board  during  recitation  a  number  of 
possessive  forms  of  words  dictated  by  the  teacher  at  a 
preceding  lesson-period. 

4.  Pupils  should  be  required  to  write  both  the  singular 
and  the  ])lural  possessive  forms  of  given  nouns. 

5.  Let  them  be  required  also  to  change  singular  pos- 
sessive forms  to  plural  possessives,  and  plural  possessives 
to  singular  possessives. 

G.  Peview  Case  by  requiring  pupils  to  select  nouns 
from  any  given  paragraph  or  stanza  and  name  the  case 
of  each. 

Some  of  the  more  simple  cautions  relative  to  tiie  use  of 
the  possessive  form  may  also  be  taught  at  this  stage,  as — • 

1.  In  w'riting  the  possessive  of  nouns  always  add  the 
possessive  sign  to  the  nominative  form. 

2.  Wiicn  several  possessives  limit  the  same  noun  or 
show  joint  ownership  add  the  possessive  sign  to  the  last 
possessive  only. 

3.  AVhen  several  possessives  denote  separate  owner- 
ship add  the  possessive  sign  to  each. 

These  cautious  should  of  course   be  illustrated  and 


212  METHODS   OF   TEACHIXG. 

explained  by  the  teacher,  after  which  the  pupils  should 
have  frequent  exercises  in  writing  the  forms  correctly 
and  in  correcting  such  improper  forms  as  may  be  pre- 
sented to  their  notice. 

The  possessive,  being  an  adjective  element,  is  written 
to  the  right  of  the  noun  which  it  modifies,  as  follows : 

Mary's 

little 

in  gavdeu.  |  the 


rabbits 


are 


Case  of  Pronouns. — In  Pronouns  the  teacher  should 
show  that  each  case  has  its  own  form,  as,  he,  his,  him, 
and  after  the  pupils  have  become  somewhat  familiar 
with  these  forms  he  should  give  them  plentiful  exer- 
cise in  requiring  them  to  write  each  form  as  it  may  be 
called  for. 

It  would  be  well  also  to  teach  the  following  cautions, 
giving  the  pu[)ils  constant  pi^actice  both  in  wa-iting  cor- 
rect sentences  and  in  having  them  correct  any  incorrect 
expressions  with  which  they  may  meet.  It  is  only  by 
this  constant  practice  in  writing  and  criticism  that  they 
finally  become  critical  in  their  use  of  language  and  learn 
to  write  with  ease  : 

Cautions. — 1.  Do  not  use  the  apostrophe  in  writing  the 
possessive  case  of  pronouns. 

2.  Do  not  use  the  objective  form  for  the  subject  or  the 
attribute  of  a  sentence. 

3.  Do  not  use  who  in  the  objective  case. 

4.  In  the  singular  number  use  the  second  person  before 
die  third,  and  the  third  before  the  first. 

5.  Do  not  use  a  pronoun  and  its  antecedent  as  the 
subject  of  the  same  sentence. 


LANGUAGE-LESSONS   AND    GRAMMAR.  213 

Other  important  cautions  may  b(^,  added,  the  teacher 
lieing  careful  that  they  are  such  as  the  pupil  can  compre- 
hend, and  explaining  and  illustrating  tliem  in  such  a  way 
as  Avill  enable  the  pupil  to  understand  them. 

These  exercises  should  be  followed  by  such  as  require 
the  pupil  to  select  pronouns  in  given  sentences,  and  name 
the  person,  number,  gender,  and  case  of  each. 

Comparison  of  Adjectives. — Tn  connection  Avith  Adjec- 
tives it  is  necessary  to  teach  Comparison,  the  chief  object 
of  which  is  to  teach  pupils  how  to  write  the  different  forms 
by  which  they  express  the  various  degrees  of  quality. 

It  is  best  to  becin  with  such  sentences  and  forms  as 
the  pupils,  from  their  own  use  of  languge,  know  to  be 
correct.  Thus,  the  teacher  may  write  on  the  board  three 
sentences  in  which  the  words  large,  small,  good,  or  any 
other  familiar  adjective,  is  properly  used,  to  show  the 
different  degrees  of  quality. 

He  should  then,  by  properly-directed  questions,  lead 
them  to  name  the  three  degrees  represented  by  other 
familiar  adjectives. 

He  may  also  show  how  the  comparative  and  the  super- 
lative degree  are  usually  formed,  both  in  monosyllables 
and  in  polvsvllables. 

Suggestions. — 1.  Let  the  pupils  form  the  comparative 
of  such  familiar  adjectives  as  may  be  dictated  by  the 
teacher. 

2.  Let  the  pupils  be  required  to  form  the  superlative 
of  such  adjectives  as  may  be  dictated  by  the  teacher. 

3.  Let  the  pupils  be  required  to  write  both  the  com- 
parative and  the  superlative  form  of  given  adjectives. 

4.  Let  the  pupils  select  adjectives  from  given  para- 


214  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

graphs,  and  name  the  degree  of  comparison  expressed 
by  each. 

In  this  connection  the  teaclier  should  teach  the  follow- 
ing cautions,  and  give  plentiful  exercises,  as  urged  here- 
tofore : 

Cautions. — 1.  Use  the  comparative  degree  when  two 
objects  are  compared. 

2.  Use  the  superlative  degree  when  more  than  two 
objects  are  compared. 

3.  Do  not  use  two  signs  of  the  comparative  or  the 
superlative. 

4.  Do  not  use  the  word  here  after  this  or  that. 

5.  When  a  numeral  adjective  means  more  than  one, 
always  put  a  plural  noun  after  it. 

6.  Do  not  use  them  for  those  in  limiting  a  noun. 

7.  Do  not  use  adverbs  for  adjectives. 

Of  course  but  a  single  caution  should  be  taught  at  a 
time,  and  the  teacher  should  be  careful  to  see  that  pupils 
both  understand  the  cautions  and  apply  them  properly. 

.  Properties  of  Verbs. — Since  transitive  verbs  may  rep- 
resent the  subject  of  the  sentence  either  as  acting  or  as 
being  acted  upon,  they  have  the  property  known  as 
Voice.  In  order  to  show  the  difference  between  tiie 
active  and  the  passive  voice  a  sentence  like  the  follow- 
ing, "The  man  shot  a  bird,"  may  be  taken.  In  this 
sentence  the  subject  man  is  represented  as  acting.  We 
may  express  the  same  idea  by  making  bird  the  subject 
of  the  sentence;  thus,  "A  bird  was  shot  by  the  man." 
In  this  sentence  the  subject  bird  is  represented  as  being 
acted  upon  or  as  receiving  the  action. 
-  The  child  may  then  be  taught  that  where  the  subject 


LANGUAGE-LESSONS    AND    GRA.MMAR.  21-5 

is  re]H'GScntecl  as  acting  the  verb  is  said  to  be  in  tlie  Active 
Voice,  and  that  where  the  subject  is  represented  as  receiv- 
iuo;  the  action  the  verb  is  said  to  be  in  the  Passive  Voice. 

Suggestions. — 1.  Tiie  pupil  should  be  required  to 
transpose  a  number  of  sentences  so  as  to  change  the 
active  to  the  passive  voice;  also,  a  number  so  as  to 
change  the  passive  voice  to  the  active. 

2.  Let  pupils  be  required  to  select  transitive  verbs  in 
sentences,  name  the  voice,  whether  active  or  passive,  and 
then  rewrite  the  sentences  so  as  to  change  the  voice. 

Mode. — In  teaching  Mode  pupils  may  be  taught  that 
there  are  several  ways  or  modes  in  which  an  assertion 
may  be  made. 

Thus,  we  may  say,  "  oMary  sings,"  in  which  we  simply 
indicate  a  fact  or  express  an  assertion. 

"We  may  also  say,  "  Mary  can  sing,"  in  which  we 
assert  her  power  to  sing. 

We  may  also  say,  "  Mary,  sing,"  in  which  we  express 
a  command  or  an  invitation. 

Or  we  may  say,  "  If  Mary  sing  we  shall  be  pleased," 
in  which  case  we  imply  a  doubt  or  a  contingency. 

We  may  also  use  the  verb  without  any  subject,  as, 
"To  sing  is  pleasant." 

These  five  different  manners  of  expressing  thought 
are  called  Modes. 

The  pupil  should  now  be  taught  the  names  of  these 
modes,  and  as  rapidly  as  each  is  taught  the  pupils  should 
have  exercise  not  only  in  selecting  verbs  of  the  mode 
tauirht,  but  also  in  chanirin";  the  sentences  from  one  form 
to  another,  so  as  to  indicate  the  difference  and  show  thai 
they  understand.     Thus,  if  the  pupil  have  learned  the 


216  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

indicative  and  the  potential,  let  him  be  required  to 
change  the  sentence  from  the  indicative  to  the  potential, 
and  from  the  potential  to  the  indicative. 

In  a  similar  way,  let  him  be  required  to  change  from 
the  imperative  to  the  subjunctive  or  the  potential,  or 
from  any  one. mode  to  any  or  all  of  the  others.  This 
practice  will  acquaint  him  with  the  different  modes  of 
expression  much  more  readily  than  all  the  conjugations 
he  could  ever  be  taught. 

Tense. — In  teaching  Tense  the  teacher  should  show  by 
a  simple  sentence  or  expression  that  an  action  may  have 
taken  place  in  the  past,  that  it  may  take  place  at  the 
present  time,  or  that  it  may  take  place  in  the  future.  He 
may  also  teach  that  the  property  of  the  verb  which 
shows  when  an  action  or  event  occurs  is  called  Tense, 

Suggestion. — The  only  exercise  necessary  here  is  to 
have  pupils  distinguish,  when  a  sentence  is  read  to  them, 
as  to  whether  the  action  represented  is  past,  present,  or 
future. 

The  second  step  is  to  show  that  as  we  have  three  kinds 
of  time,  past,  present,  and  future;  and  as  an  action  may 
be  represented  as  going  on  or  as  completed  at  any  of  these 
times,  we  have  twice  three,  or  six,  tenses,  two  in  each 
division  of  time.  After  having  been  taught  the  tenses 
and  their  names,  particularly  those  of  the  indicative 
mode,  it  will  be  found  an  excellent  exercise  to  have  tlie 
pupils  construct  sentences  representing  the  d liferent 
tenses,  somewhat  as  follows : 

I  teach ,  Present,  going  on. 

I  have  taught ,  Present  Perfect,  completed. 

I  taught — ,  Past,  going  on. 


LA^'GUAGE-LESSOyS    AND    GllAMMAE.  217 

I  had  tauglit ,  Past  Perfect,  completed. 

I  shall  teach ,  Future,  going  on. 

I  shall  have  taught ,  Future  Perfect,  completed. 

Suggestions. — 1.  Pupils  should  also  be  required  to 
change  from  one  tense  to  another.  It  is  a  surprising 
fact  that  few  persons,  even  at  present,  use  the  jiast  per- 
fect tense  of  the  indicative  correctly. 

2,  The  tenses  in  the  other  modes  need  not  be  taught 
at  this  time.  Indeed,  even  those  in  the  indicative  may 
be  omitted  until  the  pupil  takes  up  the  more  advanced 
part  of  grammar,  when  he  will  be  enabled  to  study  the 
subject  of  tense  more  intelligently. 

Number  of  Verbs. — Pupils  should  be  taught  that  the 
verb  chanf::es  its  form  according  to  the  Number  of  the 
subject  of  the  sentence.  This  may  readily  be  illustrated 
to  them  by  the  use  of  sentences  like,  "  The  man  sings," 
"The  men  sing."  Pupils  will  at  once  detect  the  change 
in  form. 

Pupils  may  be  taught  the  following  cautions  at  this 
stage  of  advancement : 

Cautions. — 1.  When  a  verb  has  two  or  more  subjects 
referring  to  different  things  and  connected  by  and,  it 
should  have  the  plural  form. 

2.  When  a  verb  has  two  or  more  subjects  in  the  sin 
gular  connected  by  and,  but  referring  to  the  same  person 
or  thing,  it  should  have  the  singular  form. 

3.  When  two  or  more  singular  subjects  are  preceded 
by  each,  every,  or  no,  the  verb  must  be  in  the  singular 
number. 

4.  Use  the  present  tense  to  express  anything  that  is 
always  true  or  untrue. 


218  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

5.  Use  shall  in  the  first  person  to  foretell  or  express 
what  will  take  place. 

6.  Use  loill  in  the  first  person  to  express  a  promise  or 
a  rcsoUition. 

The  cautions  with  regard  to  subjects  connected  by  or 
or  no7',  and  those  with  reference  to  subjects  when  col- 
lective nouns,  may  also  be  taught  at  this  stage. 

Suggestions. — 1.  Give  the  pupils  exercises  in  changing 
sentences  from  the  singular  to  the  plural  form.  Require 
them  also  to  write  original  sentences  incorporating  given 
verbs,  and  name  the  number  of  each. 

2.  Give  plentiful  exercises  in  the  correction  of  errors. 

Person. — In  teacliing  the  Person  of  verbs  it  is  neces- 
sary to  teach  only  that  the  first  person  singular  of  the 
verb  always  has  the  same  form  as  the  plural. 

Participles. — In  teaching  Participles,  which  are  only 
forms  of  the  verb,  it  may  be  shown  that  there  are  words 
which  partake  partly  of  the  nature  of  verbs  and  partly 
of  the  nature  of  adjectives;  thus,  in  the  sentence,  "The 
boy  running  down  the  hill  is  my  brother,"  the  word 
running  shows  action,  and  therefore  has  the  nature  of  a 
verb  ;  it  also  limits  the  noun  boy,  sliowing  which  boy  is 
meant,  and  therefore  partakes  of  the  nature  of  an  ad- 
jective. Pupils  may  be  taught  that  all  such  words  are 
called  participles. 

They  should  be  taught  here  also  that  when  the  parti- 
ciple is  placed  before  the  noun  which  it  limits  it  becomes 
a  partici|)ial  adjective,  as  in  the  sentence,  "  The  running 
brook  flows  to  the  river." 

Suggestions. — 1.    Let   pupils    be    required    to    select 


LA^'GUAGE-LESSONS   AND   GRAMMAR.  219 

participles    from    given    sentences,    also    participial    ad- 
jectives. 

2.  Let  thein  rewrite  sentences,  clianging  participles  to 
participial  adjectives  and  participial  adjectives  to  parti- 
ciples. 

3.  Let  pupils  compose  sentences  containing  either  par- 
ticiples or  participial  adjectives  as  the  teacher  may  re- 
quire. 

Regular  and  toegular  Verbs. — Pupils  may  readily  be 
taught  the  diiference  between  Regular  and  Ln-egular 
Verbs  by  the  teacher's  writing  verbs  on  the  board  in 
two  columns,  and  showing  that  those  of  one  column 
form  their  past  tense  regularly  by  adding  ccl  to  the 
form  of  the  present,  and  that  the  others  do  not. 

They  may  then  be  taught  that  those  which  form  their 
past  tense  and  their  perfect  participle  by  the  addition  of 
ed  arc  called  regular  verbs,  and  that  the  others  are  called 
irregular. 

Suggestio7}s. — 1,  Pupils  will  be  able  to  detect  the  per- 
fect participle  by  its  making  sense  with  the  word  have 
placed  before  it. 

2.  Let  the  pupils  write  a  number  of  verbs  by  express- 
ing the  present  tense,  the  past  tense,  and  the  perfect  par- 
tici2)le.     Thus : 

walk,  walked,  (have)  walked, 

sing,  sang,  (have)  sung, 

etc.,  etc.,  etc. 

3.  Let  the  p\ipils  tell  which  of  these  are  regular  and 
which  irregular  verbs. 

4.  Let  theni  select  the  regular  verbs  from  the  irregular 


220  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

from  a  number  dictated  by  the  teacher,  and  ^vrite  in  sep- 
arate columns. 

The  following  cautions  may  be  taught  here,  Avith 
proper  explanations,  illustrations,  and  exercises  : 

Cautions. — 1.  Do  not  use  the  past  tense  with  the 
verbs  have  or  be  in  the  different  modes  and  tenses. 

2.  Do  not  use  the  perfect  participle  to  express  j^ast 
time. 

In  writing  the  analysis  of  sentences  containing  parti- 
ciples place  the  participle  to  the  right  of  the  noun  which 
it  modifies,  thus  in  the  sentence,  "  The  fire  burning  in 
the  grate  is  very  cheerful." 

The 

burning  |  in  grate  |  the 

very 


fire 
is  cheerful. 


'  Properties  of  Adverbs. — Pupils  may  be  taught  the 
comparison  of  adverbs  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
comparison  of  adjectives,  to  which  the  reader  is  re- 
ferred. 

Suggesiions. — 1.  Let  the  pupils  be  required  to  write 
the  degrees  of  comparison  of  such  adverbs  as  the  teacher 
may  dictate. 

2.  Let  them  select  adverbs  from  given  sentences,  and 
name  the  degree  of  comparison  indicated. 

The  following  cautions  may  be  taught  in  this  con- 
nection, being  fully  explained,  illustrated,  etc.,  as  sug- 
gested heretofore : 

Cautions. — 1.  Do  not  u.se  adjectives  for  adverbs. 

2.  Do  not  use  two  negatives  to  express  negation. 

3.  So  place  the  adverbs  in  a  sentence  as  to  sho\v  clearly 
what  they  modify.  • 


LANGUAGE-LESSONS   AND   GRAMMAR. 


22] 


4.  Do  not  place  an  adverb  between  the  parts  of  an 
iufiuitive. 


Prepositions. — In  reviewing  Prepositions  let  the  pu- 
pils be  directed  t©  show  what  words  they  show  relation 
betAveen. 

Teach  the  following: 

Caution. — Do  not  use  the  nominative  form  as  the  object 
of  a  preposition. 

CoDJunctioiis. — In  reviewing  Conjunctions  require  the 
pupils  to  show  what  they  connect. 

Teach  the  following 

Cautions. — 1.  Use  than  after  else,  other,  rather,  and 
words  in  the  comparative  degree. 

2.  When  you  wish  to  express  equality  use  as  and  as. 

3.  When  you  wish  to  deny  equality  use  so  and  as. 
Write  the  conjunction  in  written  analysis  by  placing 

dotted  lines  beneath,  as  in  the  following: 
(1.)  He 


(2.) 


hoped 


You 
may  go, 


that 


<: 


ou 
would  succeed. 


but 
I 
will  stay. 

Interjections. — In  writing  the  analysis  of  sentences 
containing  interjections,  which  have  no  grammatical 
relation,  ])lace  dotted  lines  beneath  the  independent 
words,  as  in  the  following  : 


222 


MEXnODS   01    TEACHING. 


Oh! 


glides 


Loat    the 

beautifully  |  how 
down  stream !  |  the 

Attribute  and  Copula.— It  is  best  af  this  stage  of  the 
chil  i's  progress  to  sliow  that  sometimes  the  predicate  of 
a  sentence  consists  of  a  verb  and  a  noun  or  a  verb  and  an 
adjective,  and  that  in  such  cases  the  verb  is  called  the 
Copula,  and  the  noun  or  the  adjective  the  Attribute. 

The  child  should  be  tauijht  also  that  in  such  cases  the 
copula  is  an  intransitive  verb,  or  a  transitive  verb  in  the 
passive  voice. 

Sur/gestions. — 1.  Let  the  pupils  name  the  predicates  in 
projierly-selected  sentences,  and  name  both  copula  and 
attribute. 

2.  Give  them  exercises  in  writing  the  analysis  of  sen- 
tences containing  attributes. 

3.  Direct  the  pupil  to  write  the  copula  and  tlie  attri- 
bute together  as  one  predicate,  as  follows : 


essay 


was  production. 


The 


The 


very 


medicine 
a  tastes  bitter, 

fine  1  very 
Teach  the  follow! no- 

Oiufion. — Do  not  use  the  objective  form  of  a  pronouo 
as  the  attribute  of  a  sentence. 


III.   General  Suggestions  on   Language-Culture. 

The  following  suggestions  will  be  of  use  to  those  who 
desire  to  secure  the  best  results  of  lansiuaore-culture  in  a 
systematic  way  : 

1.  Have  Pupils  Copy  Reading-Lessons. — This  will  not 


LAXGUAGE-LESSONS   AND   GRAMMAR.  223 

only  give  them  practice  in  the  use  of  tlie  pencil,  but  it 
will  also  train  to  close  observation  and  give  them  practi- 
cal training  in  the  use  of  capital  letters  and  punctuation- 
marks. 

2.  Have  the  Pupils  Copy  from  the  Blackboard. — In  this 
case  the  teacher  may  write  a  short  description,  but  better 
a  short  story,  on  the  blackboard.  The  pupils  may  then 
be  required  to  copy  it.  This  exercise  may  be  continued 
for  some  time,  but  care  must  be  taken  that  the  pupils 
copy  accurately  and  that  they  be  made  critical  and  cor- 
rect in  tiieir  work. 

3.  Have  the  Pupils  Copy  while  the  Teacher  Reads.^ 
This  is  more  difficult  than  the  last,  for  the  reason  that 
the  pu])il  must  now  spell  without  the  teacher's  example 
from  which  to  copy,  and  the  exercise  may  be  made  still 
more  difficult  by  the  teacher's  making  no  suggestions  or 
explanations  with  reference  to  punctuation-marks. 

4.  Have  the  Pupils  Reproduce. — In  tliis  exercise,  while 
the  teacher  reads  or  relates  a  story  to  the  pupils,  they 
give  close  attention,  and  after  he  has  finished  they  pro- 
ceed to  write  out  the  story  as  nearly  as  possible  in  the 
manner  in  which  it  was  related.  The  exercise  may  be 
varied  by  the  teacher's  postponing  the  rejjroductioa 
until  the  next  day,  or  by  giving  the  pupils  permission 
to  rewrite  thestorvat  any  time  before  the  next  lano;uau:e- 
recitation. 

5.  Let  Pupils  Write  Letters  as  Soon  as  they  can  Express 
Themselves. — This  is  not  only  a  practical  exercise,  but  it 
is  also  one  in  which  pupils  will  take  great  interest.  These 
letters  may  be  written  to  one  another,  to  the  teacher,  to  a 
pet  bird  or  a  pet  dog  as  if  these  could  a[ipreciate  what  is 
said  to  them 


224  METHODS   OP  TEACHING. 

IV.  Grammatical  Analysis. 

Grammatical  Analysis  has  been  taught  in  some  of  our 
best  schools  for  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century,  but 
there  are  still  many  schools  into  which  the  subject  has 
not  been  introduced. 

The  importance  of  granmiatical  analysis  has  hardly 
been  appreciated  by  some  teachers,  from  the  fact  that 
their  knowledge  of  grammar  has  been  very  meagre;  but 
where  it  has  become  a  part  of  the  regular  course  of  study 
analysis  has  done  much  to  2;ive  the  student  a  clearer  con- 
ception  of  the  subject  of  grammar  and  the  ends  to  be 
gained  by  the  study  of  English.  The  close,  accurate 
habits  of  thought  enwndered  bv  the  critical  analysis  of 
the  Ensrlish  sentence  is  of  almost  incalculable  value  to 
the  learner  in  giving  to  him  training  of  judgment. 

Written  Analysis. — Written  analysis,  sometimes  known 
as  "  diagramming,"  has  its  use  in  the  study  of  grammar. 
Unfortunately,  lio\veyer,  those  who  have  made  a  hobby 
of  written  analysis  have  claimed  for  it  too  much,  and 
those  who  have  not  clearly  understood  the  object  of 
written  analysis  have  raised  objections  to  the  system  be- 
cause they  supposed  the  purpose  of  diagramming  to  be 
that  of  conveying  an  abstract  idea  to  the  child's  mind 
through  the  pictured  form. 

Written  analysis  bears  much  the  same  relation  to  the 
subject  of  grammatical  analysis  proper  as  written  work 
on  the  board  by  means  of  figures  and  symbols  bears  to 
the  practical  work  of  arithmetic,  or  the  diagrams,  equa- 
tions, etc.  placed  on  the  board  bear  to  the  demonstra- 
tion of  propositions  in  geometry. 


LAXGUAGE-LESSOXS   AND   GHAMMAE.  225 

It  ouci-lit  not  to  be  claimed  that  one  can  write  the 
analvsis  of  a  sentence  who  cannot  analvze  the  sentence 
orally,  any  more  than  one  can  solve  a  problem  Mith 
chalk  on  the  blackboard  who  does  not  in  his  mind  at  the 
same  time  perform  all  the  mathematical  work  that  he 
indicates  on  the  board,  or  draw  the  diagram,  write  ont 
the  equations,  etc.,  of  a  geometrical  demonstration  with- 
out being  able  to  give  that  demonstration  orally  also. 
But  who  objects  to  the  symbols  in  arithmetic,  algebra,  or 
geometry?  Yet  their  use  is  analogous  to  that  of  written 
analysis  in  grammar. 

Written  analysis,  whether  called  diagi'amming  or  out- 
lining, is  simply  a  pictured  form  placed  before  the  eye 
to  indicate  the  relations  of  the  difierent  parts  of  a  sen- 
tence. 

Its  Use. — The  chief  use  of  written  analysis  is  not  to 
teach  the  child  to  analyze,  but  to  save  labor.  This  it 
does  by  presenting  the  sentence  in  such  a  form  that  the 
teacher  and  the  other  members  of  the  class  can  detect  at 
a  glance  whether  or  not  the  student  understands  clearly 
the  relations  of  the  different  parts  of  the  sentence.  A 
teacher  in  examining  the  work  of  the  pupils  can  deter- 
mine its  correctness  or  incorrectness  in  one-tenth  of  the 
time  usually  employed. 

Written  Analysis  Economizes  Time. — It  does  this  by 
allowino;  everv  member  of  the  class  to  analvze  a  large 
proportion  of  the  lessou,  where  by  oral  analysis  alone 
the  pupils  might  be  able  to  analyze  but  a  single  sentence 
each.  In  this  respect  the  written  has  the  same  advan- 
tage over  the  oral  analvsis  as  the  written  method  of  reci- 
tation  in  spelling  has  over  the  oral  method.  The  teacher 
may  place  as  many  pupils  at  the  blackboaixl  as  c:;n  con- 
is 


226  METHODS   OF   TEACHIXQ. 

veniently  be  accommodated,  permitting  each  to  analyze 
a  different  sentence  from  the  others,  just  as  we  would 
have  each  solve  a  different  problem  from  those  solved 
by  other  members  of  an  arithmetic  class.  Each  should 
in  turn  be  called  upon  to  analyze  orally  the  sentence 
which  he  has  placed  on  the  board,  and  thus  gain  the 
advantages  afforded  by  both  the  oral  and  the  written 
analysis. 

A  modification  of  the  foregoing  plan  consists  in  hav- 
ing a  portion  of  the  class  analyze  in  writing  while  others 
at  tiie  recitation-seats  take  up  the  same  sentences  and 
analyze  orally.  In  this  manner  each  may  be  led  to  de- 
tect and  correct  the  mistakes  of  others. 

Written  analysis  is  valuable  from  the  convenience 
which  it  affords  tiie  teacher  in  examinincr  the  work  of 
the  pupils.  At  such  times  as  the  teacher  desires  to  give 
his  class  a  written  examination  or  a  written  review  dia- 
gramming becomes  invaluable  as  an  aid  in  enabling  him 
to  examine  rapidly  tiie  written  work  of  the  pupils.  • 

Oral  Analysis  should  not  be  Neglected. — The  tendency, 
when  pupils  are  not  cautioned,  is  for  them  to  neglect  the 
oral  analysis  and  spend  too  large  a  part  of  the  time  in 
diatrrammino;.  The  careful  teacher  will  of  course  suard 
against  this,  and  see  that  whenever  a  sentence  is  dia- 
grammed the  pu}ii]  is  called  upon  to  give  the  oral 
analysis  also. 

Simplicity  of  Diagrams. — The  simpler  the  system  of 
written  analvsis  the  more  valuable  it  will  be.  Some 
systems  look  well  upon  paper  which  are  exceedingly 
complex  on  account  of  the  great  number  of  characters 
used,  and  in  such  cases  it  will  be  found  that  the  system 
of  diagramming  is  almost  as  difficult  to   learn  as  the 


LAXGUAGE-LESSOXS  AND   GEAMMAE. 


227 


analysis  of  the  sentences  itself.  Some  systems  are  ob- 
jectionable because  they  require  words  to  be  written 
either  perpendicularly  or  obliquely,  both  of  which  are 
unnatural  in  the  writing  of  English. 

The  following  system  is  submitted  for  the  consideration 
of  teachers  because  of  its  simplicity,  and  because  the  words 
are  placed  in  every  case  horizontally,  as  they  are  found  in 
ordinary  writing.  The  analysis  of  sentences  by  this  sys- 
tem requires  but  little  more  time  than  is  required  to  place 
the  sentences  on  the  blackboard. 


Directions. 

1.  Place  the  subject  and  the  predicate  to  the  left  of 
a  bisected  perpendicular  line,  the  former  above  and  the 
latter  below  the  bisecting  line;  thus: 


Dogs 
bark. 


Lions 
roar. 


2.  Place  the  modifiers  to  the  rigid  of  the  words  which 
they  modify  ;  thus : 

weather 


enlivens 


This 
pleasant 
nature,  ]  all 


3.  ^V'ords  understood  may  be  indicated  by  a  cross  (x); 


tin 


lb  . 


Try 


to  sell 


X  him 

book.  I  the 

4.  Place  a  dotted  line  under  connectives  not  used  to 
modify;  thus: 


228 


METHODS   OF  TEACHING. 


I 

kuow 


that 


< 


lie 


•  will  come  |  to-morrow. 

5.  Write  connectives  which  are  used  to  modify,  without 
the  dotted  line ;  thus : 


He 

tau"lit 


X  me     ^work 
how 


:•<     - 

^"^^  1  c  fl  r\r\  p 


the 


■  is  done. 

6.  AVhen  a  connective  modifies  words  in  two  clauses 
enclose  it  in  marks  of  parenthesis;  thus: 

He 
studies    (while)<^ 

7.  Represent  clause-modifiers  by  joining  them  to  the 

■words  modified  by  a  <,  as  in  examples  under  directions 

4,  5,  G  ;  thus : 

The 
,who 

ime   to  see  |  us 


man 


has  returned 


^^:ar 


to  home.  I  his 


8.  When  a  phrase  is  modified,  join  its  parts  by  an  in- 
verted caret,  and  this  with  the  modifier  by  a  horizontal 
line;  thus: 


friend 
lives 


Our 

below  town.  I  the 

V 

just 


Note. —  The  modifies  town,  and  ju^t  modifies  the  phrase 
below  town.  ^ 

9.  Join  the  parts  of  a  compound  element  by  oblique 


lines;  thus: 


LAXGUAQE-LESSOXS   AXD    GRAMMAR. 


229 


Health 
and 

strength 


are  gained 


by 


temperance 
and 


^exercise. 

10.  Separate  the  members  of    a  compound   sentence 
where  the  conjunction  is  omitted;  by  dotted  lines;  thus: 


hoat 


The 


upset 
men 

fell 
and 
they 


the 

into  river  [  the 


swam 


then 

to  shore.  1  the 

rapidly 


11.  Place  a  dotted  line  beneath  correlatives;  thus: 

Both 

our 


< 


friends 
and 

foes 


will  watch 


our 

us 

critically. 

12.  Place  independent  parts  above  the  sentence  a  little 


to  the  left,  with  a  dotted  line  beneath ;  thus  : 

Land  |  of  sires !  I  my 

What 


hand 


can  untie 


mortal 
e'er 


band 


the 
filial 


-kni 


that 

ts 


me 

to  strand  ? 


thy 

rugged 


230 


METHODS  OF   TEACHING. 


13.  Place  a  dotted  line  beneath  introductory  or  inde- 
pendent words,  not  modifiers;  thus: 


Well, 


we 


John, 


come 


to  me. 


have  beaten    you. 

14.  Join  factitives  and  attributes  to  the  predicate  verb. 
Th  us,  in  factitives : 


Tbey 

subjects 

His 

made  white. 

wall 

the 

made  king. 

him 

Thus,  in  attributes: 

Snow 

Gold 

is  beautiful. 

very 

is  metal. 

a 
precious 

15.  When  a  word  is  in  apposition  with  a  clause  place 
a  bracket  after  the  clause;  thus: 

You 

evidence 


gave 


X  us 

answer ; 


no 


clear 

of  guilt.  I  your 


16.  Where  a  relative  is  used  with  a  double  construction 
it  may  be  indicated  as  follows:  "This  is  what  I  bought." 

This 


is  what 
Ttbat] 


^houErlit. 


X 

[which] 


If  it  is  thought  desirable  to  name  the  different  elements, 
probably  the  simplest  plan  would  be  to  mark  adjective 
elements  1 ;  adverbial  elements,  2 ;  and  objective  ele- 
ments, 3. 

The  foregoing  principles  may  be  made  to  cover,  it  is 
thought,  all  the  sentences  whose  construction  comes  un- 


LANGUAGE-LESSOXS   AND   GRAMMAR.  231 

(ler  the  rules  of  Eno-lish  syntax.  Thev  are  o;iven  here 
substantially  as  found  in  the  author's  Fradiccd  Engliah 
Grammar. 

A  System  of  Analysis  shouldbe  S/mp^e. — The  ohject  of 
analysis  is  to  train  the  pupil  to  discover  the  exact  mean- 
ing of  a  sentence  by  determining  the  force  of  each  word. 
This  is  done,  to  some  extent,  also,  by  parsing,  but  anal- 
ysis is  more  general  in  its  character,  and  deals  often  with 
groups  of  words  instead  of  individuals.  Thus,  an  ad- 
jective element  may  consist  of  a  single  adjective,  of  a 
noun  having  an  adjective  relation,  or  of  a  phrase  or  a 
clause  performing  the  office  of  an  adjective. 

It  is  not  necessary  that  anv  system  of  analysis,  whether 
oral  or  written,  should  be  complex  or  intricate  in  character. 
Indeed,  the  more  simple  the  system  the  more  readily  will 
it  be  grasped  and  the  more  will  the  pupil  be  encouraged 
to  pursue  the  study  with  eagerness.  It  is  enough  to 
know  that  elements  consist  of  words,  phrases,  or  clauses, 
without,  for  instance,  considering  them  as  also  elements 
of  the  first,  the  second,  or  the  third  class. 

In  teaching  analysis  the  pupil  who  has  learned  the 
force  of  any  part  of  speech  may  readily  be  taught  that 
a  group  of  words  may  perform  the  same  office  as  a 
sino:le  word.  Thus,  if  it  is  shown  that  a  single  word, 
as  an  adjective,  may  limit  a  noun,  it  may  be  readily 
shown  also  that  a  phrase  or  a  clause  may  perform  the 
same  office :  and  that  if  the  sintrle  word  be  called  an 
adjective  element,  the  same  name  may  be  applied  to 
the  phrase  or  the  clause;  and  thus  alsc  with  the  other 
elements  taught.  Parsing  should  be  made  to  assist 
tlie  pupil  in  determining  the  force  of  words  in  an- 
alysis. 


232  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

Principles  of  Analysis. — The  following  simple  prin- 
ciples may  be  taught  as  the  basis  of  all  analysis  : 

1.  That  nouns,  pronouns,  adjectives,  verbs,  and  ad- 
verbs may  be  limited  or  modified. 

2.  That  prepositions,  conjunctions,  interjections,  and 
articles,  as  such,  are  never  limited. 

3.  That  adjective  elements  are  used  to  limit  uouna 
and  pronouns. 

4.  That  adverbial  elements  are  used  to  limit  adjec- 
tives, verbs  (including  participles),  and  adverbs. 

5.  That  objective  elements  are  used  to  limit  transitive 
verbs  in  the  active  voice  when  the  limiting  element  rep- 
resents the  object  upon  which  the  action  terminates. 

If  the  pupil  have  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  fore- 
going principles  he  need  have  little  fear  of  being  un- 
able to  determine  what  any  element  in  a  given  sentence 
may  modify.  These  principles  are  really  the  ground- 
work of  all  analysis. 

Methods  of  Analysis. — The  two  methods  of  analyzing 
a  sentence  have  been  named  the  Synthetic  and  the 
Analytic. 

By  the  Si/nthetic  method,  after  having  decided  on  the 
class  and  kind  of  sentence,  the  pupil  names  the  simple 
subject  of  the  chief  clause,  and  then  one  by  one  the 
modifiers  which  limit  it;  then  the  com})lete  or  logical 
subject.  The  same  plan  is  pursued  with  the  analysis 
of  the  predicate. 

-By  the  Analytic  method,  after  having  decided  upon 
the  class  and  kind  of  sentence,  the  ])U]nl  names  the 
complete  or  logical  subject  of  the  chief  clause,  then 
the  simple  or  grammatical  subject,  then  the  modifiers, 
and    after   these   the   modifiers  of   the    modifiers.     He 


LANGUAGE-LESSONS    AND   GRAMMAR.  233 

proooeJs    in   tlie  same   manner  in   the  analysis  of   the 
predicate. 

Both  methods  aim  to  accomplish  the  same  result,  the 
grammatical  analysis  of  the  sentence,  and  each  has  its  ad- 
vocates. Our  choice  is  in  fiivor  of  the  analytic.  Thus,  in 
aualvzinrr  the  sentence,  "  llVie/i  the  speaker  had  finished 
i/ie  audience  retired,"  the  analysis  would  be  as  follows : 

"  This  is  a  complex  declarative  sentence.  The  prin- 
cipal clause  is  the  audience  retired,  and  the  subordinate 
clause,  ichen  the  speaker  had  finished.  Of  the  principal 
clause  the  audience  is  the  logical  subject;  the  simple 
subject  is  audience,  which  is  modified  by  the  adjective 
element  the.  Retired  when  the  speaker  had  finished  is  the 
logical  predicate;  the  simple  predicate  is  rc^iVecZ,  which 
is  modified  by  the  adverbial  element  when  the  speaker 
had  finished.  Of  the  subordinate  clause  the  speaker  is 
the  logical  subject;  the  simple  subject  is  speaker,  which 
is  modified  by  the  adjective  element  the.  The  logical 
predicate  is  had  finished  when,  of  which  had  finished  is 
the  simple  predicate,  modified  by  the  adverbial  element 
when  used  as  a  conjunctive  adverb." 

Suggestions. — 1.  The  first  exercises  in  analysis  should 
consist  of  very  simple  sentences ;  it  is  best  to  use  only 
declarative  sentences  for  a  time. 

2..  Pupils  should  be  taught  to  distinguish  clearly  the 
exact  meaning  of  the  terms  used  in  grammatical  anal- 
ysis, such  as  "phrase,"  "clause,"  "member,"  "logical," 
"  grammatical,"  etc. 

3.  Avoid  the  use  of  unnecessary  terms  and  those 
which  tend  to  confuse  the  mind  of  the  learner.  The 
simpler  the  analysis  the  better. 

4.  Let  oral  and  written  analvsis  go  hand  in  hand. 


234  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

They  should    be  tauglit  together  j  ea».h  shomd  supple- 
ment the  other. 

5.  See  that  pupils  use  strictly  correct  language  in  their 
oral  analysis.  If"  false  syntax  is  excusable  anywhere,  it 
certainly  is  not  in  the  grammar-class. 

6.  jNIake  grammatical  analysis  the  basis  of  logical 
analysis,  so  that  puj)ils  may  study  English  intelli- 
gently and  with  the  view  of  determining  the  thought 
of  the  writer. 

V,   Parsing. 

Parsing  consists  in  naming  the  part  of  speech,  in  tell- 
ing its  {)ro))crties,  and  in  showing  its  relation  to  other 
words  in  the  sentence. 

The  object  of  parsing  is  mainly  to  train  the  pupil  to 
distinguish  the  use  of  words,  and  thus  discover  the  rela- 
tion which  words  bear  to  one  another  in  a  sentence,  as 
well  as  the  force  they  have  in  modifying  thought.  Pars- 
ing docs  not  enable  us  to  speak  or  write  more  correctly, 
but  it  teaches  ns  to  understand  more  clearly  the  force  of 
language,  and  thus  indirectly  enables  us  to  use  it  with 
greater  precision. 

Parsing  is  valuable  also  as  a  discipline  in  training  the 
pupil  to  verify  the  definitions  of  the  various  parts  of 
speech,  their  subdivisions,  and  their  properties.  In  this 
respect  it  is  valuable  also  in  making  pu})i!s  familiar 
with  the  rules  and  principles  of  grammar  from  the  con- 
stant review  atforded. 

These  being  the  objects  of  parsing,  it  will  readily  be 
conceded  that  much  of  our  teaching  of  grammar,  and 
particularly  of  parsing,  in  the  past,  has  been  valueless, 
aud  therefore,  to  a  great  extent,  useless. 


l.ANGUAGE-LESSOXS   AND    GRAMMAR.  235 

Ptu'slng  for  bc(/lnners  should  be  very  simple,  consist- 
ing cliieHy  in  naming  the  parts  of  speech  and  selecting 
given  parts  of  speech,  as  suggested  heretofore  in  connec- 
tion with  *' Language- I^essons."  As  the  pupil  learns 
the  classes  or  subdivisions  of  the  parts  of  speech  he  may- 
be recjuired  also  to  name  these,  and  as  he  learns  the 
properties  he  may  add  these  also. 

The  Reasons. — After  pupils  have  once  learned  the 
parts  of  speech,  their  classes,  and  their  properties,  it 
may  be  well  for  them  to  give  for  a  time  the  reason  for 
every  statement  until  these  reasons  have  become  fully 
understood,  when  they  should  be  gradually  drop})ed. 
Thus,  in  parsing  a  noun,  as  in  the  sentence,  "Mary  saw 
hi'r  brother,"  let  the  pupil  staie — 

Mary  is  a  noun,  it  is  a  name ; 

Pi'oper,  it  is  tlie  name  of  a  particular  person  ; 

Singular  number,  it  means  but  one; 

Third  person,  it  is  spoken  of; 

Feminine  gender,  it  is  the  name  of  a  female; 

Nominative  case,  it  is  used  as  the  subject  of  the  sentence. 

When  the  pupil  has  become  thoroughly  familiar  with 
the  reason  for  each  of  these  statements  the  followino; 
condensed  form  may  be  used  : 

Mary  is  a  proper  noun,  of  the  singular  number,  third  person, 
feminine  gender ;  it  is  in  the  nominative  case,  being  used  as  the 
subject  of  the  sentence. 

Brief  Forms. — As  pupils  advance  it  will  be  found  of 
advantage  to  use  still  more  brief  forms,  omitting;,  iu  fact, 
everything  except  government,  relation,  and  agreement. 
Thus  in  the  foregoing  sentence  with  advanced  classes  it 
is  necessary  to  say  only,  "  Mary  is  a  jiroper  noun  in  the 
nominative  case ;  it  is  used  as  the  subject  of  the  sentence." 


23G 


METHODS    OF    TEACHIXG. 


Selected  Words. — It  will  often  prove  of  advantage  for 
the  teacher  to  select  the  more  important  or  the  more 
difficult  words  in  tlie  given  sentences.  Time  may  be 
economized  in  this  way,  and  at  the  same  time  pupils  will 
be  trained  to  think  by  being  led  to  examine  the  parsing 
exercise  in  order  to  ascertain  the  words  which  present 
the  greatest  difficulties. 

Choice  LiteratiU'e. — Witli  besrinners  it  is  of  course  wise 
to  select  such  language  as  they  can  readily  comprehend, 
but  with  those  who  have  made  some  advancement  in  the 
study  of  grammar  it  will  be  found  of  special  advantage 
to  have  them  studv  the  current  literature  of  the  dav, 
and  that  which  is  recoo-nized  as  standard  and  classic  in 
our  language,  for  the  twofold  purpose  of  acquainting 
themselves  with  choice  literature  and  examining  criti- 
cally the  construction  of  English  sentences  as  written 
bv  the  best  EiiHish  authors. 

Written  Parsing. — Written  parsing  has  its  advantages 
in  savinir  time  and  in  securinor  work  from  the  whole 
class.  Both  the  written  and  the  oral  form  may  be  used 
in  the  same  recitation.  Pupils  also,  in  j^reparing  their 
class-M'ork,  may  be  profitably  employed  in  writing  out 
the  parsing  exercise. 

For  the  convenience  of  those  who  desire  to  use  written 
forms  occasionally,  we  suggest  the  following,  the  first 
form  being  for  a  single  part  of  speech,  as  the  pronoun 
in  the  following  sentence :  "Let  him  beware,  lest  he  de- 
ceive his  own  soul." 


Peoxouxs. 

KrsD. 

Number. 

Persojt. 

Ge>'dee. 

Case. 

GOVEBSMEST. 

him, 
he, 

his, 

personal, 

a 

sing.. 

3d., 
u 

Mas., 
It 

Obj., 

Xoui., 

Pos., 

Ohjpct  of  W. 
Sutiject  of  dfceue. 
Limits  soul. 

LAXGUAGE-LESSOXS   AND   GRAMMAR.  237 

The  other  parts  of  speech  may  be  written  in  a  similar 
manner,  and  the  teacher  will  find  the  employment  not 
only  useful,  but  it  will  be  also  in  a  measure  congenial  to 
the  ]ui])ils,  particularly  to  those  a^Iio  are  thoughtful  and 
desirous  of  learning;;. 

The  following  form  may  be  used  with  all  parts  of 
speech  at  the  same  time.  Should  the  sentence  prove  too 
long  for  the  space  allotted,  it  may  be  divided  and  placed 
below,  as  in  ordinary  writing: 

He  is  die  freeman  whom  the  truth  mahes  free. 


Pro., 

Verb, 

An 

M 

Noun, 

Pro., 

Art., 

Noun, 

Verb, 

Adj., 

per., 

intr.. 

/iceman. 

com., 

rel., 

truth. 

com.. 

Iran., 

qua!., 

3.1, 

iiidio., 

3d, 

3a, 

3d, 

act.. 

fac. 

sing., 

pies., 

sing., 

sing., 

sing., 

indie, 

uhum. 

mas., 

sa. 

was., 

mas., 

neut.. 

pres.. 

num., 

sing.. 

noni., 

obj., 

nom., 

3d, 

is. 

He. 

after  is. 

makes. 

makes. 

sing., 

truth. 

Suggestions. — 1.  The  teacher  should  see  that  his  pupils 
understand  clearly  and  definitely  the  meaning  of  the  ex- 
pressions they  use  in  parsing,  such  as,  "limit,"  "modify," 
"qualify,"  "relate  to,"  "agree  with,"  and  similar  terms. 

2.  Permit  pupils  to  dispense  with  formal  parsing 
occasionally,  and  have  them  point  out  the  agreement, 
relation,  and  government  only. 

3.  Let  the  pupils  occasionally  have  a  parsing-match. 
They  become  wonderfully  attentive  and  critical  under 
the  stimulus  afforded. 

4.  See  that  the  pupils  are  careful  to  use  none  but  good 
English  in  the  parsing  exercises;  let  them  apply  this  to 
both  their  pronunciation  and  their  syntax. 

5.  Give  the  pu])ils  a  correct  form,  and  Avhen  they  de- 
viate from  this  show  them  wherein  the  error  consists, 
and  train  them  to  avoid  it. 


238  METHODS   OF  TEACHING. 

6.  Do  not  make  a  hobby  of  parsing ;  there  are  other 
parts  of  grammar  more  important  than  this. 

7.  When  a  "written  form  is  used  insist  ujion  neatness 
as  well  as  correctness  in  the  work ;  remember  that  the 
chief  use  of  the  written  work  is  to  save  time  and  to  in- 
duce each  pujiil  to  prepare  the  lesson  properly. 

Analysis  and  Pai'sing. — These  are  closely  related,  and 
thev  mav  readily  be  tauii-ht  towther.  The  old  plan  was 
to  begin  with  the  etymological  part  of  grammar,  teach- 
ing the  parts  of  speech,  tlieir  classes,  modifications,  etc., 
thoroughly,  and  with  this  unite  parsing  as  the  pupil  pro- 
ceeded, and  then  take  up  analysis  if  it  was  taught  at  all. 
Many  at  present  claim  that  we  should  begin  with  an- 
alysis, on  the  ground  that  the  sentence  is  the  unit  of 
thought. 

A  better  plan  than  either  is  a  union  of  the  two :  the 
simpler  parts  of  analysis  may  be  taught  quite  as  readily 
as  parsing,  as  has  heretofore  been  indicated  in  the  first 
steps  of  Language-Lessons.  The  plan  of  teaching  sub- 
ject, predicate,  and  modifiers,  so  far  as  the  work  may  be 
conducted  with  beginners,  has  been  sufficiently  indicated. 
It  presents  no  serious  difficulties  whatever,  and  needs  no 
further  discussion. 

VI.  Syntax. 

The  errors  in  the  use  of  speech  by  all  speakers  and 
writers  are  many.  Even  the  ablest  writers  now  and  then 
are  guilty  of  violating  the  rules  governing  the  construc- 
tion of  sentences ;  and  as  to  the  errors  in  the  every-day 
conversation  of  the  majority  of  people,  they  are  simply 
innumerable.  The  systematic  correction  of  the  errors  is 
based  on  certain  rules  and  principles  which  govern  the 


LANGUAGE-LESSOXS  AND    GRAMMAR.  239 

most  correct  writers  and  speakers  iu  their  use  of  English. 
In  grammar  the  correction  of  these  errors  is  known  as 
the  Correction  of  False  Syntax. 

The  chief  object  aimed  at  in  the  correction  of  fiilse 
syntax  is  that  of  training  the  learner  to  use  the  Umguage 
correctly.  The  pupil  becomes  critical  and  careful  in  his 
own  use  of  language  by  correcting  the  mistakes  of  others. 

The  argument  that  we  should  never  permit  a  child  to 
correct,  or  even  see,  a  false  sentence  is  of  no  value,  for 
the  greatest  possible  care  we  may  exercise  will  not  pre- 
vent his  seeing  or  hearing  incorrect  language  every  hour 
of  his  life.  It  is  a  well-known  jxsychological  law  that 
the  impression  made  upon  the  miiid  by  any  object  of 
knowledge  is  all  the  stronger  for  having  been  placed  in 
contrast  with  its  o]i})Osite.  The  storm  at  sea  is  all  tlie 
grander  and  the  more  terrible  from  its  contrast  with  the 
peaceful  calm  by  which  it  was  ])receded. 

A  secondary  object  in  the  correction  of  false  syntax  is 
that  of  making  the  student  thoroughly  acquainted  with 
the  rules  and  principles  which  govern  the  correct  use 
of  our  language,  together  with  their  application,  thus 
enabling  him  to  acquire  correct  habits  iu  his  own  use 
of  speech. 

The  selection  of  errors  to  be  corrected  should,  as  far  as 
possible,  be  made  from  the  every-day  language  of  the 
])upils.  To  these  should  be  added  such  incorrect  forms 
of  speech  as  may  be  current  in  tlie  neighborhood.  Selec- 
tions should  be  made  also  from  the  literature  of  the  day 
and  from  the  master  writers  of  the  language,  for  even  iu 
the  writings  of  men  of  tlie  highest  literary  reputation 
there  will  be  found  many  violations  of  the  rules  gov- 
erning the  correct  use  of  English.    These  errors  must  of 


240  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

course  not  be  taken  as  correct  because  made  by  reputable 
writers.  They  tend  rather  to  show  that  even  the  most 
careful  are  not  infallible  in  their  use  of  correct  lanfrua^e. 

Correct  Speech  should  be  Taught  Eai'Iy. — Children  learn 
their  early  use  of  language  by  imitation.  If  the  models 
which  they  follow  were  invariably  correct  they  would 
S{)cak  correctly  as  a  habit,  but  if  these  models  be  incor- 
rect there  seems  to  be  but  one  wav  of  correctino;  the 
vicious  example  of  those  with  whom  they  associate,  and 
that  is  by  making  the  pupils  careful  to  use  correct  speech 
by  calling  their  attention  to  their  own  errors  and  those 
of  others,  and  thus  making  them  observant  and  critical. 
The  moment,  therefore,  that  they  are  detected  in  the 
use  of  incorrect  language  the  teacher  should  call  atten- 
tion to  the  mistakes,  and,  whenever  possible,  have  the 
child  correct  its  own  errors.  The  important  end  to  be 
secured  is  that  of  having  the  child  use  correct  lauo;uao;e 
from  the  force  of  habit.  If  we  can  secure  this  result 
much  of  the  subsequent  labor  in  training  to  correct 
speech  may  be  avoided. 

Syntax  in  all  Branches, — Care  must  be  exercised  that 
pupils  use  good  English  in  all  their  recitations.  The 
teacher  who  reserves  all  corrections  of  speech  for  the 
grammar-class  has  but  a  partial  appreciation  of  his  duty. 
If  he  is  cautious  to  correct  mistakes  Avherever  and  when- 
ever he  may  observe  them,  he  will  find  his  teaching  in 
the  subject  of  language  very  much  simplified. 

Method  of  Teaching  the  Principles. — It  is  not  enough  to 
have  the  pupils  correct  the  sentences  they  may  meet  with. 
It  is  still  more  important  that  they  be  taught  the  princi- 
ples which  govern  the  use  of  language,  and  be  ready  to 
a])p1y  them  both  in  the  correction  of  errors  and  in  the 


LANGUAGE-LESSOXS   AND   GRAMMAR.  24.] 

cc  ristruction  of  their  own  sentences.  It  is  an  excellent 
plan  to  have  the  pnpils  study  a  rule  as  a  v/hole,  and 
in  their  class-exercise  write  not  only  the  rule,  but  also 
the  notes  and  cautions  appended.  This  plan  is  partic- 
ularly effective  in  the  case  of  those  who  are  somewhat 
advanced. 

Forms  for  Correction. — With  beginners  it  is  deemed  best 
to  allow  them  sim])ly  to  correct  the  errors,  witiiout  re- 
quiring any  special  form,  though  it  is  well  to  have  them 
give  a  reason  for  their  correction  if  the  reason  is  known 
to  them.  With  those  more  advanced,  however,  it  is  best 
to  use  a  simple  form.  The  following  is  used  by  many 
excellent  teachers,  and  is  strictly  correct. 

Illustration:  "Them  that  believe  in  me  shall  be 
rewarded."  The  sentence  is  incorrect,  because  them,  a 
pronoun  having  the  objective  form,  is  used  as  the  sulycct 
of  the  proposition;  the  nominative  form  They  should  be 
substituted,  according  to  Rule  I.,  Caution  1. 

Incorrect  Forms. — Care  should  be  taken  that  correct 
forms  be  used.  Thus,  in  the  foregoing  illustration  to 
say  that  "  Them,  a  ])ronoun  in  the  objective  case,"  etc.,  is 
not  correct.  The  case  of  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  is  de- 
termined bv  its  I'elation  to  other  words  in  the  sentence : 
the  word  Jorm  should  be  used  instead  of  the  word  case. 
Also,  to  quote  tlie  rule  and  say  that  "The  subject  of  a 
finite  verb  must  be  in  the  nominative  case,"  is  incorrect, 
as  the  subject  of  a  finite  verb  is  in  the  nominative  case, 
and  it  should  have  the  nominative  form.  It  is  also  in- 
correct to  say,  "77(em  should  be  changed  to  They  f'  rather 
we  should  say,  '^Tliey  should  be  substituted  for  Them," 
or,  "  The  nominative  form  Tliey  should  be  substituted 
for  the  objective  form   T/iem,." 

16 


242  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

Mixed  Exercises.— In  applying  the  principles  of  syntax 
it  is  well  at  times  to  gis'e  what  may  be  termed  "mixed 
exercises;"  tliat  is,  those  in  which  only  some  of  the 
sentences  are  incorrect.  This  will  require  the  pu])il  to 
apply  his  knowledge  of  the  subject  of  .'syntax  in  deter- 
mining not  only  which  sentences  are  correct  and  which 
incorrect,  but  also  how  to  make  the  proper  correction. 

Suggestions. — 1.  In  teaching  the  rules  of  syntax  and 
their  application  to  the  correction  of  errors  see  that 
pupils  clearly  understand  them.  Do  not  be  satisfied 
with  having  the  pupils  commit  to  memory  the  rules, 
notes,  remarks,  and  cautions. 

2.  Select  a  large  number  of  sentences  for  correction 
from  every-day  speech,  current  literature,  and  text- 
books. Pupils  soon  learn  to  correct  the  errors  found  in 
the  textbooks  they  use,  and  they  often  even  go  so  far  as 
to  mark  the  necessary  corrections  the  first  time  made,  so 
that  on  review  it  may  not  require  any  study  pr  thought. 

3.  In  the  correction  of  sentences  use  a  form  only  so 
long  as  it  may  be  necessary  for  the  purpose  of  impress- 
ing on  the  mind  the  proper  rule  and  caution.  Time 
may  often  be  saved  by  omitting  the  fqrm  when  the 
pupils  are  once  thoroughly  familiar  with  it. 

4.  Encourage  pupils  to  criticise  the  language  of 
standard  writers.  This  will  make  them  critical  and 
accurate  in  their  own  use  of  lanoruafje. 

5.  Encourage  pupils  to  make  a  note  of  such  errors  as 
may  be  lieard  on  the  playground  or  in  the  recitation- 
room,  and  have  them  corrected  in  class. 

6.  Use  good  English  in  the  presence  of  your  pupils, 
in  order  that  they  may  learn  to  speak  correctly  as  a 
habit. 


LAXGUAGE-LESSOXS   AND   GRAMMAR.  243 

Teach  by  Topics. — INIany  parts  of  grammar  are  com- 
paratively easy  to  corapreheud.  There  are,  however,  a 
few  principles  which  present  serious  difficulties  to  a 
student.  Among  these  may  be  named  participles,  in- 
finitives, the  transitive  verb,  factitives,  restrictive  and 
non- restrictive  clauses,  and  the  use  of  the  possessive  in 
certain  constructions.  The  most  profitable  way  of  teach- 
ing these  is  to  take  up  one  topic  at  a  time,  and  dwell  on 
that  one  point  until  it  is  thoroughly  understood.  Other 
textbooks  and  the  opinions  of  other  teachers  should  be 
brought  to  bear  on  the  mind  of  the  learner.  The  teacher 
should  illustrate  the  language  of  the  book  with  examples 
selected  from  otiier  sources  than  the  textbook  in  use. 

Pupils  should  be  encouraged  also  to  consult  other 
textbooks,  if  available,  in  order  to  get  a  clearer  under- 
standing of  the  topic.  Ample  time  should  be  given  for 
the  pupil  to  comprehend  the  exact  meaning  and  import- 
ance of  the  topic  taught.  It  is  entirely  safe  to  say  that 
fully  fifty  per  cent,  of  the  teachers  of  the  United  States 
would  fail  in  a  thorough  examination  on  one  or  more  of 
the  above-named  subjects.  Very  many  teachers  do  not 
have  a  clear  conce])tion  of  even  the  transitive  verb,  and 
very  many  more  are  still  less  certain  as  to  their  knowl- 
edge of  participles  and  infinitives. 

Teclinical  Grammar. — By  technical  grammar  is  meant 
that  part  of  grammar  which  deals  strictly  with  the  sci- 
ence itself,  including  the  technicalities  and  idioms.  Many 
have  argued  that  technical  grammar  should  not  be  taught 
in  the  public  schools.  But  it  will  be  noticed  that  every 
such  person,  though  his  education  may  have  been  only 
such  as  the  public  school  affords,  is  always  ready  to 


244  METHODS   OF  TEACHING. 

apply  the  principles  of  teclinical  grammar  In  the  criti 
icism  and  correction  of  such  errors  as  he  may  meet  Nvitli. 
Wliile  language-lessons  and  composition  will  give  the 
pupil  exercise  and  training  in  the  correct  construction  of 
sentences,  and  train  to  correct  speech,  technical  grammar 
is  a  necessity  to  the  proper  comprehension  and  under- 
standing of  the  principles  on  which  the  practice  is 
based.  It  bears  the  same  relation  to  the  use  of  lan- 
guage as  the  science  of  arithmetic  bears  to  the  mechan- 
ical operations  in  that  branch  of  study. 

Words  and  tlieir  Functions. — It  is  Important  to  teach 
that  words  are  parts  of  speech  only  as  they  are  used  in 
speech.  Pupils  frequently  imbibe  the  notion  that  all 
words  are  divided  into  parts  of  speech,  without  relation 
to  their  use  in  sentences.  This  is  an  error  which  the 
teacher  must  be  prepared  to  meet  and  correct.  He 
should  teach  that  the  use  of  a  word  In  a  sentence  de- 
termines what  part  of  speech  it  is.  Thus,  the  word  uidl 
may  be  used  as  five  parts  of  speech,  as  follows: 

1.  The  well  is  filled  with  water  [noun). 

2.  We  are  all  well  [adjective). 

3.  The  stream  seemed  to  well  out  from  the  rocks  [verb). 

4.  Well !  well !  Is  It  possible  that  he  could  have  be- 
haved so  badly?  [interjection). 

5.  The  lesson  was  well  recited  [adverb). 

6.  Well,  let  us  begin  [independent  adverb). 

Illustrating  the  Uses  of  Words. — It  is  a  valuable  exer- 
cise to  have  pupils  illustrate  the  various  uses  of  words. 
Thus,  after  having  been  taught  the  power  and  use  of  a 
word,  as  weU  In  the  above  sentences,  let  pupils  be  re- 


LANGUAGE-LESSOXS    AND    GRAMMAR.  245 

quired  to  write  one  or  more  sentences  to  illustrate  each 
use  of  the  word.  This  method  of  teaching  should  be 
carried  through  the  whole  grammar.  For  instance,  in 
verbs  something  like  the  following  might  be  required: 

1.  Write  is  as  a  principal  verb;  as,  The  boat  is  on  the 
river. 

2.  Write  is  as  a  copulative  verb;  as,  This  apple  is 
sweet. 

3.  Write  is  as  an  auxiliary  verb;  as.  The  boy  is 
writing. 

An  exercise  of  this  kind  is  valuable  in  training^  the 
learner  to  distinguish  the  different  uses  of  such  words 
as  is,  are,  and  the  other  verbs  usually  known 'as  copu- 
lative. 

Similar  exercises  might  bo  given  on  such  verbs  as 
ran;  as, 

1.  We  ran  a  race,  where  the  verb  is  transitive,  being 
followed  by  a  kindred  noun. 

2.  The  horse  ran  a  miJe,  where  the  verb  is  intransitive, 
the  noun  following  a  preposition  understood. 

3.  The  engineer  ran  a  train,  where  the  verb  is  transi- 
tive, fi'om  its  causative  meaning. 

4.  The  brooks  ran  nectar,  where  the  verb  is  transitive, 
being  used  in  the  sense  of  produced. 

VII.  Suggestions  on  Teaching  Grammap. 

1.  In  the  teaching  of  any  department  of  grammar, 
and  particularly  analysis  and  parsing,  train  your  pupils 
to  be  liberal-minded.  Two  students  or  two  teachers  may 
decide  differentlv  as  to  the  construction  of  a  sentence  or 
the  disposition  of  a  word,  and  yet  neither  can  say  Avith 
certainty  that  the  othei  is  wrong.     Each  may  be  right 


24G  METHODS    OF   TEACHl^U. 

according   to   his   understanding  of  the   meaning  to  be 
conveyed  by  the  autiior. 

2.  Do  not  train  your  pupils  to  be  biased  or  narrow  in 
their  o})inions.  Teach  them  that  many  words  may  bo 
dis[)osed  of  in  several  ways,  according  to  the  meaning 
implied  in  the  sentences  where  they  are  used. 

3.  Beware  of  quoting  a  single  textbook  as  absolute 
authoritv.  The  verv  fact  that  scarcelv  two  textbooks 
on  grammar  agree  throughout  is  a  strong  argument 
why  both  teacher  and  pupil  should  consult  a  number 
of  authors  on  disputed  points. 

4.  Be  careful  to  see  that  pupils  not  only  understand 
the  rules  of  syntax,  but  that  they  also  be  made  expert 
in  the  application  of  them  to  the  correction  of  errors 
and  the  construction  of  sentences. 

5.  Give  special  attention  to  the  practical  part  of 
grammar,  sentence-construction  and  the  correction  of 
sentences. 

6.  Give  most  attention  to  the  most  important  parts 
and  to  those  most  difficult  for  the  pupil  to  comprehend. 

7.  Do  not  make  a  hobby  of  any  department  of  gram- 
mar: parsing,  analysis,  the  correction  of  false  syntax, 
practical  sentence-construction, — all  have  their  uses. 

8.  Shorten  the  work  by  omitting  non-essentials;  thus, 
in  the  declension  of  nouns  the  work  may  be  greatly 
facilitated  by  having  the  pupils  write  the  possessive 
singular  and  plural  only.  In  conjugation  much  work 
may  be  saved  by  having  the  pupils  give  only  the  synop- 
sis, writing  out  the  first  person  singular  in  all  the  modes 
and  tenses. 

Variety  may  be  secured  also  by  having  one  pupil  write 
the  synopsis  in  the  first  person  singular,  another  in  the 


LANGUAGE-LESSOXS    AND    GRAMMAR.  247 

third  person  plural,  aud  so  on.  The  teacher  mav  also 
require  a  verb  written  in  a  certain  mode,  tense,  person, 
and  number.  This  will  test  the  pupil's  knowledge 
thorouo;hly. 

9.  Remember  that  it  is  constant  practice  that  makes 
not  only  fluent  speakers,  but  also  correct  ones.  Expert- 
ness  comes  not  from  rules,  but  from  practice. 

10.  Rise  above  the  textbook.  Be  orig-inal :  teach 
something  beyond;  no  textbook  can  cover  one-fifth  the 
ground,  particularly  in  practical  exercises,  that  ought  to 
be  covered  by  a  corajjetent  teacher. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

Composition. 

Composition  is  the  art  of  expressing  one's  thonglits, 
The  term  is  usually  restricted,  however,  to  the  expression 
of  connected  thouo;hts  by  means  of  written  laneuasre. 
These  thoughts  may  be  such  as  originate  in  one's  own 
mind,  or  they  may  be  such  as  have  been  impressed  upon 
us  through  the  faculty  of  perception. 

Importance. — The  importance  of  teaching  pupils  to 
compose  or  express  their  thoughts  connectedly,  correctly, 
and  impressively  cannot  well  be  over-estimated.  There 
is  no  more  desirable  accomplishment  than  the  ability  to 
express  one's  self  elegantly  and  tersely  in  one's  own 
language.  Latin  and  Greek  may  give  us  valuable  disci- 
pline, but  the  ability  to  write  one's  own  language  fluently 
and  correctly  should  be  prized  much  more  highly  than 
the  most  finished  education  in  any  foreign  language, 
either  livinsr  or  dead. 

I.  The  Advantages  of  Teaching  Composition. 

1.  It  r/ivrs  Valuable  Culture  to  the  l^'arious  Mental 
Powers,  employing  not  only  observation,  but  also  mem- 
ory, imagination,  the  understanding,  and  even  reason. 

2.  It  Cultivates  a  Literary  Taste. — The  student  who  is 
taught  to  compose  and  express  his  own  thoughts  reads 

248 


COMPOSITION".  249 

eagerly  the  thoughts  of  others,  partly  that  he  may  make 
comparisons,  but  partly  also  because  he  acquires  a  taste 
for  literature  in  the  very  eifort  to  express  his  owu 
thoughts. 

3.  It  Trains  the  Learner  to  Thinh. — The  day  has  gone 
by  when  pupils  were  expected  to  write  on  all  sorts  of 
subjects,  even  such  as  were  entirely  beyond  their  com- 
prehension. It  is  now  a  -recognized  fact  that  the  writer 
must  have  something  to  say  before  he  can  say  it. 

A.  It  gives  Language- Culture. — Xolhing  so  much  en- 
ables one  to  write  correctly  as  constant  practice.  The 
best  way  to  learn  to  express  ourselves  properly  is  to  com- 
pose, and  to  record  our  thoughts  on  paper. 

5.  It  Creates  Interest. — AVe  never  read  a  paragraph  so 
closely  or  ^vith  so  much  interest  as  when  Ave  expect  to 
reproduce  it;  nor  do  we  observe  at  any  other  time  so 
closelv  as  when  we  are  desirous  of  convevino;  to  others 
our  observations  and  impressions  with  reference  to  the 
objects  or  scenes  which  are  a  part  of  our  experience.  If 
properly  taught,  composition  may  be  made  one  of  the 
most  interesting  of  studies,  as  well  as  one  of  the  most 
beneficial. 

II.  Methods  of  Teaching  Composition. 

Practical  composition  should  accompany  all  language- 
lessons,  though  the  pupil  do  no  more  than  write  sentences 
correctly.  This  will  at  least  train  to  correct  expression, 
and  prepare  the  pupil  to  express  his  own  thoughts  proj)- 
erly  when  he  comes  to  the  work  of  composition  proper. 

The  first  efforts  at  composition  should  be  very  simple. 
The  child  should  of  course  first  have  ideas  to  express; 
without  these  composition  is  not  ouly  useless,  but  also 


250  METUODS   OF  TEACHING. 

impossible.  Whence  the  child  gets  these  ideas  is  a  ques- 
tion to  be  settled  by  psychology.  Suffice  it  to  say,  that 
every  intellectual  power  is  a  part  of  the  mental  machinery 
\vhich  creates  thought:  perception,  memory,  imagination, 
understanding,  reason, — all  are  active  in  the  production 
of  thoutrht. 

Oral  Composition  should  Precede  Written. — The  dread 
of  composition-writing  often  arises  more  from  the  name 
than  from  the  actual  work  itself  when  once  fully  under- 
stood.  Pupils  may  readily  be  trained  to  tell  what  they 
know  about  an  object  to  be  described  or  to  relate  the  in- 
cidents of  a  journey,  when  they  would  shrinlv  from  the 
effort  to  express  themselves  on  the  same  subjects  if  re- 
quired to  do  so  in  writing. 

III.  The  Plan. 

Copying. — AYhen  a  class  has  had  no  previous  training 
in  composition-writing,  let  them  copy  reading-lessons  or 
paragraphs  from  such  books  as  may  be  found  conveni- 
ent. Having  exchanged  their  papers  or  slates,  let  thera 
correct  one  another's  exercises,  giving  special  atten- 
tion to  spelling,  capital  letters,  punctuation-marks,  and 
paragraphs.  While  making  these  corrections  the  pupils 
should  of  course  be  permitted  to  use  the  open  book  in 
order  to  make  the  comparisons.  This  will  enable  pupils 
to  do  the  work  correctly,  and  at  the  same  time  save  the 
teacher  considerable  time  and  labor. 

Copying  from  Dictation. — This  is  also  a  valuable  exer- 
cise, inasmuch  as  it  compels  the  pupil  to  apply  his 
knowledge  of  the  principles  and  rules  taught  to  him  as 
he  pursues  his  course  of  language-lessons.     Tiie  lessons 


COJIPOSITION'.  251 

mav  be  o-raJed  as  to  difficulty ;  the  teacher  mav  at  first 
name  the  punctuation-marks  as  lie  proceeds,  also  the 
the  capital  letters.  Then  the  pupils  should  be  made  to 
depend  upon  their  own  knowledge  as  to  where  capital 
letters  should  be  used.  Lastly,  the  teacher  should  sim- 
ply read,  permitting  the  pupils  to  decide  for  themselves 
as  to  where  capital  letters,  periods,  and  others  of  the  most 
familiar  punctuation-marks  should  be  used.  The  teacher 
should  grade  these  lessons  according  to  the  capacity  of 
pupils. 

Reproduction  of  Thought. — A  third  step  in  the  work 
of  composition-writing  is  that  of  reproducing  in  the 
child's  own  language  a  storv  or  interesting  incident  re- 
lated  by  the  teacher.  The  teacher  should  be  careful  to 
select  for  his  exercises  short  stories  or  sketches,  such  as 
the  pupils  can  readily  remember,  and  then  change 
gradually  to  those  of  greater  length. 

After  having  reproduced  stories  or  incidents  for  a 
time,  the  pupils  should  be  required  to  reproduce  descrip- 
tions ;  and  these  descriptions  at  first  should  be  such  as 
relate  to  objects  familiar  to  the  children,  that  they  may 
reproduce  intelligently  by  being  able  to  add  from  their 
own  stock  of  knowledge  where  memory  in  any  sense 
fails. 

Do  not  insist  on  a  literal  reproduction  at  first.  Let  it 
rather  be  an  abstract  only,  but  expressed  in  the  child's 
own  language,  for  this  is  the  only  true  test  as  to  whether 
the  child  is  thinking  for  itself  or  simply  memorizing 
and  repeating  words. 

The  exercise  of  reproducing  thought  may  be  varied  by 
having  pupils  read  a  story,  an  incident,  a  description,  or 
even  an  ai^ument,  and  then,  with  books  closed,  reproduce 


252  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

it  as  accurately  as  possible  in  their  own  language.  This 
is  an  exercise  which  we  have  found  valuable  even  in  such 
branches  as  mental  and  moral  science.  Nothing  is  more 
conducive  to  fixing  the  thought  in  the  mind  than  this 
written  re])roduction. 

Original  Composition. — The  first  original  compositions 
required  should  be  short;  at  least,  the  pupil  should  not 
be  required  to  write  more  than  he  can  express  readily. 
These  compositions  should  be  either  narrative  or  de- 
scriptive. 

Narration. — If  narration  be  preferred,  the  pupil  may 
be  permitted  to  select  his  own  subject,  or  the  teacher  may 
assign  one  for  the  whole  class.  In  either  case  the  learnei 
may  be  both  helped  and  encouraged  by  asking  him  ques- 
tions, so  as  to  develop  thought  as  well  as  recall  that  which 
has  already  been  in  the  child's  mind.  This  narration  should 
consist  of  something  entirely  familiar  to  the  child,  as  a 
sleigh-ride,  a  day's  coasting,  a  game  of  ball,  a  trip  to  the 
city,  a  ride  in  the  country,  or  something  similar. 

Description. — If  description  be  selected,  it  would  be 
well  for  the  teacher  to  give  a  lesson  in  some  of  the 
earliest  compositions  on  the  object  to  be  described,  so 
as  to  arouse  thought  and  at  the  same  time  convey  some 
information.  The  object  may  be  placed  before  the  class, 
or  the  lesson  may  consist  in  describing  a  given  object  in 
its  absence.  The  lesson  may  be  varied  by  requiring  the 
pupils  to  describe  a  landscape,  a  stream,  the  mountains, 
a  city,  and  other  objects. 

The  exercise  in  description  may  be  varied  by  placing 
a  picture  before  the  pupils,  having  them  study  it  closely 
and  then  write  a  description  of  it  and  the  different  ob- 
jects portrayed.     Native  talent  will  here  begin  to  show 


COMPOSITION.  \  253 

itself,  and  those  of  vivid  imagination  will  by  no  means 
restrict  themselves  to  a  literal  description  of  what  they  see. 

News. — A  weekly  or  semi-monthly  newspaper  in  the 
Bchool-room  is  an  excellent  medium  for  composition- 
training.  All  pupils  should  be  trained  to  write  short 
news  paragraphs.  These  atford  excellent  exercise  in 
both  description  and  narration.  The  news  department 
of  our  papers  of  the  day  are  those  most  eagerly  read. 
The  modern  7?c?i?spaper  is  a  recognized  necessity. 

Historical  Sketches. — When  pupils  have  once  pro- 
gressed so  far  as  to  have  read  history  and  biography, 
it  is  an  admirable  plan  to  have  them  condense  their 
knowledge  and  reproduce  it  in  short  sketches.  Thus, 
having  read  the  full  account  of  the  American  Revolu- 
tion, let  them  write  a  sketch  giving  the  causes,  some  of 
the  most  interesting  incidents,  and  close  with  the  results. 
This  will  not  only  train  to  accurate  expression,  but  it  will 
also  lead  to  condensation  of  thought  and  more  effective 
study. 

What  has  been  said  of  historical  M'riting  is  equally 
api)licable  to  biography.  It  is  well  sometimes  to  assign 
a  subject,  as  Washington,  Columbus,  etc.,  with  the  pur- 
pose of  having  pupils  acquire  a  taste  for  biographical 
study,  and  for  the  purpose  of  training  them  to  repro- 
duce in  writing  what  they  have  read. 

Forms. — Pupils  should,  as  a  part  of  the  composition- 
exercise,  be  trained  to  write  all  business  and  other  forms, 
such  as  letters  of  ail  kinds,  applications  for  positions,  notes 
of  invitation,  condolence,  and  congratulation,  acceptances 
and  regrets,  resolutions  of  respect,  etc.,  telegrams,  prom- 
issory notes,  drafts,  checks,  negotiable  notes,  receipts,  due- 
bills,  and  other  business  forms. 


254  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

In  some  institutions  these  are  all  embraced  under  the 
head  of  "  Letter-writing,"  but,  after  all,  letter- writing  is 
but  a  part  of  practical  composition. 

Under  the  head  of  letters  pupils  should  be  required 
to  V  rite  letters  of  various  kinds — a  letter  to  a  sister,  to 
a  father  or  a  mother,  to  the  teacher,  to  a  school-mate,  to 
a  friend,  or  even  to  a  favorite  dog  or  canary. 

In  telegrams  they  should  be  taught  the  necessity  and 
hnportance  of  condensing,  and  yet  omit  no  necessary 
A'ords. 

Analysis  of  the  Topic. — In  some  of  the  first  exercises 
it  is  best  for  the  teacher,  when  he  assigns  the  same 
subject  to  a  whole  class,  to  analyze  the  method  of 
treatment  in  such  a  way  that  the  pu[)ils  may  write 
intelligently  on  the  topic.  After  having  placed  this 
analysis  on  the  board  so  that  pupils  may  copy  it  or  refer 
to  it,  he  should  ask  a  number  of  questions,  so  as  to  arouse 
thought  in  the  mind  of  the  child  and  thus  furnish  a  basis 
for  the  production. 

Reading  Compositions. — There  is  much  variety  in  the 
practice  of  teachers  as  to  reading  the  compositions  pub- 
licly. Some  prefer  to  have  an  afternoon  set  apart  when 
all  may  read ;  others  take  portions  of  several  days  and 
have,  but  a  part  of  the  school  read  ;  while  still  others 
do  not  have  the  compositions  read  publicly  at  any 
time.  Undoubtedly,  great  benefit  arises  from  having 
the  pupils  read  publicly  what  they  have  written,  but 
teachers  differ  greatly  in  their  plans.  Probably  as 
profitable  a  plan  as  any  is  that  of  having  the  -writers 
read  their  productions  in  the  reading-class  and  at  the 
regular  time  assigned  for  that  branch.  Should  the 
class  be  vcrv  large,  so  that  not  all  may  be  heard   in 


coMrosiTiox.  255 

the  allottetl  time,  a  portion  only  of  the  c/ass  may  be 
called  upon,  reserving  the  others  for  another  occasion. 
The  teacher  should  criticise  posture,  manner,  expres- 
sion, etc.,  the  same  as  in  the  reading-class  at  any  other 
time. 

"Composition  day"  has  usually  been  dreaded  by  pupils 
in  almost  all  schools,  and  chiefly  because  the  work  of  teach- 
ing composition-writing  has  been  without  system,  and  be- 
cause pupils  have  written  under  compulsion  when  they 
had  really  no  thoughts  to  express.  As  a  consequence, 
pupils  frequently  absented  themselves  as  composition 
day  came  round,  rather  than  submit  to  the  faultfind- 
ing of  the  teacher  for  their  seemino;  nco;lia;ence. 

If  the  exercises  of  composition  day  be  made  general 
in  their  character,  so  that  the  interest  not  onlv  of  the 
pupils,  but  of  the  whole  community,  is  awakened,  the 
teacher  need  have  little  fear  that  compositions  will  be 
a  cause  of  truancy.  Let  the  day,  if  a  general  exercise 
is  preferred,  be  made  a  literary  occasion,  in  Avhich 
declamations,  music,  recitations,  dialogues,  debates,  a 
society  or  school  paper,  and  essays  shall  all  form  fea- 
tures of  the  occasion,  and  composition  day  will  be  hailed 
as  one  of  the  pleasantest  days  of  the  term. 

IV.  Suggestions  on  Composition. 

1.  See  that  pupils  have  thoughts  to  express  before 
they  attempt  to  express  them.  The  first  essential  i3 
that  the  child  has  something  to  say  on  the  subject 
selected  before  he  attempts  to  write. 

2.  Have  your  pupils  express  their  thoughts  in  cor- 
rect language,  and  always  in  such  words  as  they  under- 
stand. 


256  METHODS    OF    TEACHIXG. 

3.  Do  not  insist  that  their  ]ano;uao;e  shall  consist  of 
monosyllables.  Monosyllabic  language  may  be  strong, 
but  language  needs  to  be  beautiful  as  well  as  strong.  A 
judicious  intermingling  of  words  of  various  lengths  is 
the  most  harmonious  arrangement  as  well  as  the  most 
expressive. 

4.  Encourage  pupils  to  read,  and  then  to  reproduce 
Mlut  they  have  read  either  in  newspapers  or  in  the 
works  of  standard  authors. 

5.  Encourage  them  to  refer  to  the  dictionary  whenever 
in  doubt  as  to  the  correct  meaning  or  the  proper  applica- 
tion of  a  word. 

C.  Encourage  them  to  read  the  best  and  most  classic 
authors,  to  discover,  if  possible,  the  essentials  which 
make  their  style  pleasing.  Reading  literature  of  a  cap- 
tivating style  will  tend  to  give  one  power  to  form  a 
pleasing  style  of  one's  own. 

7.  Ease  of  expression  may  be  acquired  by  constant 
practice,  but  also  by  copying  and  memorizing  the  pro- 
ductions of  the  elegant  writers  in  one's  own  lansfuao-e. 
We  naturally  imitate  the  style  of  those  writings  with 
whicii  we  are  most  familiar,  and  their  methods  of  ex- 
pression to  some  extent  model  ours. 

8.  Give  occasional  exercises  in  transposing  poetry  to 
prose.  This  will  require  the  learner  to  remodel  many 
of  the  sentences  and  express  them  in  a  different  form. 

9.  Exercises  in  paraphrasing  are  excellent.  Let  the 
pupil  take  some  popular  proverb  and  write  an  explana- 
tion of  it. 

10.  See  that  pui)ils  do  not  attempt  to  select  subjects 
beyond  their  comprehension.  Encourage  them  to  be 
original  by  having  them  write  only  on  such  themes  as 


COMPOSITION.  257 

they  uuderstand,  in  having  them  exj^ress  themselves 
naturally,  and  by  giving  them  proper  praise  for  even 
their  humblest  efforts. 

11.  Encourage  your  pupils  to  correct  and  rewrite 
^•hat  they  have  Avritten,  and  prune,  until  they  express 
themselves  in  the  best  possible  manner. 

12.  Lead  your  pupils  to  see  that  composition  is  only 
telling  or  writing  what  they  know  or  think  on  any 
subject. 

13.  Make  your  composition-exercises  interesting  by 
havina:  variety.  The  teacher  is  often  able  to  create  in- 
terest  by  giving  a  five-minute  exercise;  that  is,  by  allow- 
ing the  pupils  five  minutes'  time  to  express  themselves 
on  a  given  subject. 

14.  Let  your  criticism  be  generous.  Harsh  criticism, 
particularly  in  the  composition-class,  tends  greatly  to 
discourao-e  the  child  and  disgust  him  with  the  exercise. 

15.  See  that  the  compositions  of  your  pupils  are  ex- 
pressions of  thought,  and  not  a  mere  string  of  meaning- 
less sentences  connected  by  a  series  of  conjunctions. 

16.  See  that  their  sentences  are  not  ambiguous,  and 
that  they  do  not  violate  the  rules  of  grammar  and 
rhetoric. 

17.  Let  the  writing  be  exact.  Where  the  wrong 
word  is  used  call  their  attention  to  it,  and  in  this  way 
aid  them  in  discriminating  accurately  the  nicer  shades  of 
meanino-  in  words. 

18.  Teach  accurately  the  meaning  of  the  various 
classes  of  sentences,  and  show  pupils  the  use  of  para- 
graphs and  how  they  should  begin. 

19.  Have  your  pupils  write  abstracts  of  stories  they 
have  read,  also  imaginary  stories. 

17 


258  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

20.  Give  them  practice  in  writing  news  events  for 
the  press,  whether  they  be  forwarded  to  an  editor  or 
not. 

21.  Have  tliera  write  short  scientific  articles;  this 
will  both  give  them  a  review  and  train  them  to  think 
and  compose  with  special  accuracy. 

22.  Let  them  write  descriptions  of  imaginary  voyages, 
in  which  they  can  employ  their  knowledge  of  geography 
and  historv. 

23.  When  pupils  in  a  class  are  not  all  required  to 
write  on  the  same  theme,  place  a  number  of  suitable 
subjects  on  the  blackboard,  and  let  them  select  from 
these. 

24.  Train  them  to  outline  or  analyze  the  topic  which 
they  select  before  they  begin  to  write  on  it. 

25.  Encourage  them  to  think  over  each  point  in  the 
outline  carefully  before  ihey  attempt  to  write.  This 
will  do  more  than  anything  else  to  lead  them  to  think 
for  themselves. 

2G.  In  the  preparation  of  the  more  extended  essays 
pupils  should  be  trained  to  observ^e  closely  and  reflect 
intently  before  giving  their  thoughts  expression. 

27.  In  the  collection  of  material,  pujjils  should  read 
also  the  thoughts  of  others;  these  will  arouse  new 
thoughts  in  their  own  minds,  and  make  their  writings 
all  the  more  valuable. 

28.  The  student  preparing  to  write  should  be  en- 
couraged to  carry  a  notebook,  in  which  he  should  jot 
down  such  thoughts  with  reference  to  his  subject  as  may 
occur  to  him  from  time  to  time. 

29.  When  once  the  analysis  of  the  topic  has  been 
made,  the  student  should  select  only  those  parts  which 


coMrosiTiON.  259 

seem  most  important,  and  dwell  on  these,  but  without 
repetition  of  cither  thought  or  language. 

30.  Let  the  teacher  by  all  means  cultivate  among  his 
pnpils  a  taste  for  good  reading  and  pure  literature.  Let 
him  give  such  culture  to  his  pupils  as  will  create  in  them 
a  desire  to  read  for  themselves  what  is  beautiful  and  inter- 
esting in  the  writings  of  others,  and,  having  once  secured 
this  result,  he  need  Iiave  little  fear  as  to  their  success,  not 
only  in  the  department  of  language,  but  in  every  other 
department  as  well. 

31.  Remember  that  the  daily  exercise  in  written  ex- 
pression of  thought  is  much  more  valuable  than  the  formal 
serai-monthly  compositions  prepared  for  an  occasion. 

32.  In  the  correction  of  compositions  it  is  usually  better 
simply  to  indicate  the  error  than  correct  it;  by  this  plan 
the  pupil  will  be  enabled  to  correct  most  of  his  own 
errors,  and  when  not  able  to  do  so  it  will  be  time  for 
the  teacher  to  suggest  the  proper  correction. 

Some  teachers  prefer  to  indicate  the  sort  of  correction 
to  be  made,  whether  in  spelling,  capital  letters,  or  other- 
wise, but  in  general  it  will  be  found  best  simply  to  indicate 
that  an  error  has  been  made,  and  let  the  pupil  discover  it 
for  himself. 

Some  of  the  errors  may  be  written  on  the  board  for 
the  class  to  criticise  and  correct.  When  such  a  plan  is 
pursued,  the  teacher  should  never  be  so  inconsiderate  as 
to  permit  any  pupil  to  know  from  whose  compositions 
the  errors  have  been  gleaned.  In  general,  those  errors 
which  are  likely  to  be  made  by  all  or  most  of  the  mem- 
bers of  the  class  should  be  placed  on  the  board. 


CHAPTER  YIIT. 

Rhetoric. 

The  subject  of  Rhetoric  is  so  closely  allied'  to  that  of 
grararaaFj  and  it  enters  so  largely  into  the  art  of  elegant 
expression,  that  it  is  deemed  best  to  offer  a  few  sugges- 
tions here  with  reference  to  the  most  effective  methods 
of  teaching  it.  Writers  on  rhetoric  differ  so  widely  in 
their  presentation  of  the  subject  that  no  definite  plan 
can  be  presented  which  could  be  adapted  to  the  text- 
books now  before  the  public,  nor  is  it  deemed  advis- 
able to  present  here  the  qualities  of  style,  divisions  of 
discourse,  etc.,  that  are  to  be  found  in  the  textbook 
proper. 

1.  Divisions  of  Rhetoric— Most  writers  on  rhetoric 
agree  on  dividing  the  subject  into  two  chief  depart- 
ments. Style  and  Invention.  Some  of  these  discuss  the 
subject  of  style  first,  on  the  ground  that  the  transition 
from  the  rules  of  grammar  to  the  rules  of  style  is  more 
natural  for  the  student.  Others  treat  of  invention  first, 
claiming  that  the  writer  must  have  something  to  say  be- 
fore he  learns  how  to  express  his  thoughts.  The  proper 
method  is  to  teach  the  two  together,  giving  practical  com- 
position-exercises in  connection  with  the  discussion  of  the 
topics. 

2'50 


EHETORIC.  261 

2.  Diction. — lu  discussing  Diction  do  not  let  pupils 
rest  satisfied  with  committing  to  memory  definitions  of 
terms.  Require  them  also  to  show  wherein  words  violate 
the  principles  of  diction— purity,  propriety,  and  precision. 

Let  pupils  not  only  select  words  that  violate  these 
properties,  but  also  criticise  current  literature  and  sub- 
stitute proper  synonyms  for  the  violations. 

A  very  interesting  exercise  is  that  of  having  the  pupils 
write  as  many  synonyms  of  a  given  word  as  possible,  and 
then  construct  sentences  incorporating  these  words  in  such 
a  way  as  to  show  the  various  shades  of  meaning.  Thus, 
the  synonyms  of  leave,  as  quit,  resign,  forsake,  desert, 
abandon,  and  withdraw,  may  be  employed  in  sentences 
of  the  pupils'  own  construction.  This  exercise  enlarges 
their  vocabulary  and  makes  them  critical  in  the  choice 
of  words,  while  it  gives  them  at  the  same  time  practice 
in  composition. 

Another  important  exercise  is  that  of  having  the 
pupils  trace  the  linguistic  origin  of  words.  If  this  were 
carefully  attended  to  we  should  hear  fewer  mongrel  for- 
mations, such  as  u-alJdst,  timist,  cablegram,  and  others 
used  by  speakers  and  writers  who  claim  to  use  repu- 
table Enfrlish. 

In  teaching  the  proper  rhetorical  construction  of 
sentences  see  that  pupils  not  only  know  how  to  criticise 
the  language  of  others,  and  show  how  it  violates  the  rules 
for  clearness,  unity,  strength,  harmony,  etc.,  but  tliat  they 
also  express  their  own  thoughts  in  properly-constructed 
sentences. 

3.  Figures. — Inasmuch  as  a  large  portion  of  our  speech 
consists  of  figurative  language,  it  is  desirable  that  the 


262  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

students  learn  to  detect  readily  the  difference  between 
figurative  and  literal  expressions,  and  to  appreciate  the 
heightened  effect  gained  by  the  use  of  figures  of  speech. 
Suggestions. — 1.  In  teaching  figures  see  that  pupils  are 
able  to  select  and  name  properly  the  figures  in  ordinary 
and  classic  discourse. 

2.  Have  them  -write  any  required  figures  in  original 
composition. 

3.  Let  them  change  figurative  language  to  plaiu,  and 
plain  language  to  figurative. 

4.  Give  them  exercises  in  chanwino;  one  kind  of  fij^-ure 
to  another,  as  a  simile  to  a  metaphor,  or  a  metaphor  to  a 
simile. 

5.  Teach  them  to  be  careful  not  to  multiply  figures  un- 
necessarily, and  particularly  not  to  construct  mixed  figures. 
The  use  of  mixed  figures  is  the  most  flagrant  error  that 
young  and  effusive  writers  arc  apt  to  commit. 

4.  Versification. — Suggestions. — 1.  Train  pupils  to  dis- 
tinguish carefully  between  poetry  proper  and  versification, 
or  the  mechanical  part  of  poetry. 

2.  Give  frequent  exercises  in  scanning  the  different 
varieties  of  poetic  verse. 

3.  Show  pupils  that  mere  rhyme  and  metrical  arrange- 
ment do  not  constitute  poetry,  and  that  not  all  poetry  is 
rhyme.  • 

4.  Have  pujnls  frequently  convert  poetry  into  prose, 
so  that  they  may  appreciate  fully  poetic  license  as  man- 
ifested in  the  use  of  elision,  figures  of  enallage,  personi- 
fication, etc. 

5.  Have  pupils  illustrate  the  requirements  of  a  perfect 
rhyme. 


RHETORIC.  263 

6.  Give  tliem  exercises  in  metrical  compo£ition  or 
verse-writing,  permitting  them  at  first  to  select  their 
own  measure,  and  afterward  adapting  the  sentiment 
to  some  measure  suggested  by  the  teacher. 

5.  Prose  Composition. — Suggestions. — 1.  Teach  jnipils 
to  distinguish  accurately  between  the  various  forms  of 
prose  composition — reviews,  essays,  treatises,  editorials, 
travels,  history,  biography,  fiction,  and  discourse,  in- 
cluding orations,  addresses,  lectures,  and  sermons. 

2.  Give  pupils  practice  in  writing  the  various  forms  of 
prose  composition,  requiring  them  to  use  the  style  prop- 
erly adapted  to  each,  and  showing  them  wherein  to  con- 
dense and  where  to  be  profuse  in  the  use  of  language. 

3.  In  the  writing  of  discourses  impress  upon  tlie  minds 
of  pupils  the  importance  of  dividing  the  discourse  sym- 
metrically, so  that  it  may  have  a  proper  introduction, 
body,  and  close. 

6.  Punctuation. — Suggestions. — 1.  In  order  to  teach 
punctuation  effectively  the  teacher  should  have  a  thor- 
ough knowledge  of  grammar,  and  the  more  extended 
the  pupil's  knowledge  of  that  science  tlie  more  readily 
%vill  he  be  able  to  comprehend  the  principles  of  punc- 
tuation and  ai)ply  them  in  prac^tice. 

2.  Only  the  more  important  rules  should  be  taught  at 
first,  such  as  the  pupils  can  readily  understand  and  apply, 
even  though  such  teaching  do  not  exhaust  the  rules  with 
regard  to  any  particular  point  under  discussion. 

3.  Let  pn})ils  not  only  punctuate  such  exercises  as  the 
teacher  may  dictate  with  the  proper  marks  omitted,  but 
also  copy  and  punctuate  while  the  teacher  reads. 


2G4    ■  METHODS    OF   TEACHIXG. 

4.  Pupils  should  also  have  considerable  practice  in 
punctuating  their  own  compositions,  and  be  able  to  give 
the  proper  reason  for  every  mark  inserted. 

7.  Rhetorical  Essays.— It  is  a  valuable  practice  to  have 
students  of  rhetoric  write  essays  on  the  different  topics 
studied.  Thus,  after  having  studied  diction,  let  the 
whole  class  be  required  to  reproduce  the  discussion  in 
their  own  language.  The  exercise  will  afford  valuable 
practice  in  composition,  and  at  the  same  time  serve  to 
impress  the  different  points  more  firmly  on  the  mind. 


CHAPTER   IX. 
English  Literature. 

Few  studies  afford  so  wide  a  scope  for  mental  culture 
as  does  the  literature  of  one's  language.  Too  little 
attention  has  been  given  to  the  subject  of  English  litera- 
ture in  our  American  schools.  Much,  however,  may  be 
done  toward  creating  and  cultivating  a  taste  for  litera- 
ture, even  in  an  informal  way,  in  connection  with  read- 
ing and  history,  but  it  is  best  that  a  definite  method  be 
pursued. 

The  plan  of  teaching  literature  naturally  arranges  it- 
self in  three  divisions,  as  follows :  First  Stq)s  in  Litera- 
ture, Studies  in  Literature,  and  the  History  of  Literature. 
Most  of  the  efforts  at  teaching  literature  in  the  past  -were 
simply  the  teaching  of  literary  biography  and  the  history 
of  literature,  and  this  accounts  for  the  fact  that  the  re- 
sults have  not  been  satisfactory. 

I.  First  Steps  in  Literature. 

AVith  beginners  the  two  most  important  ends  to  be 
aimed  at  are  to  arouse  an  interest  in  literary  biogra})hy 
and  create  a  taste  for  beautiful  thoughts  expressed  in 
beautiful  language. 

Biography. — lu  teaching  to  beginners  the  biogra})hy 
of  literary  men  much  the  best  plan  is  to  teach  those  in- 

265 


266  METHODS   OF    TEACHING. 

cidents  uhich  will  be  likely  to  arrest  the  attention  of  the 
child.  Thus,  in  the  career  of  Goldsmith  his  travels  on 
the  Continent  and  his  playing  on  his  flute  for  supper 
and  a  night's  lodging,  together  with  other  interesting 
incidents  in  his  checkered  life,  will  have  a  very  much 
greater  influence  in  awakening  in  the  heart  of  the  child 
a  desire  to  know  more  about  tlic  author  and  his  writino-s 
than  all  the  statistics  as  to  his  birth  and  death  or  the 
number  and  titles  of  the  books  he  wrote,  and  when  he 
Avrote  each,  could  possibly  do.  The  lives  of  some  of  our 
literary  characters,  Goldsmith,  Gray,  Johnson,  and  others, 
may  be  made  to  read  almost  like  a  romance;  and  this  is 
the  stvle  of  teaching  which  should  characterize  the  first 
work  in  literature. 

Authors'  Birthdays. — The  celebration  of  authors'  birth- 
days by  appropriate  literary  exercises  is  an  excellent 
means  of  awakening  an  interest  in  literature.  At  such 
a  time  a  brief  biogra})hy  of  the  author  should  be  read 
by  some  selected  pupil,  or  the  teacher  should  give  an 
interesting  biography  of  the  writer  whose  birthday  is 
celebrated.  At  this  time  the  ])upils  may  also  recite  some 
selections  from  the  author.  Interesting  anecdotes  may 
be  related,  and  if  visitors  be  invited  to  the  school  on  such 
an  occasion,  these  too  mav  add  somethin'r  to  the  general 
fund  of  knowledge. 

Memorizing  Extracts. — In  the  early  stages  of  teaching 
literature  the  pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  memorize 
choice  extracts  from  each  author  as  he  is  studied.  These 
should  be  brief,  and  such  as  are  in  every  way  worthy  of 
being  remembered  either  for  the  sentiment  thev  contain 
or  for  their  beauty  of  expression.  Fill  the  child's  mind 
with  the  noblest  thoughts  of  our  great  authors,  and  it 


ENGLISH    LITERATURE.  2G7 

will  manifest  but  little  desire  to  read  such  literature  as 
is  uuhealthy  or  pernicious  in  its  tendencies. 

II.  Studies  in  Literature. 
The  second  step  in  tlie  teaching  of  literature  is  that 
of  training  pupils  to  study  the  language  of  the  various 
authors  critically,  with  the  view  of  not  only  appreciat- 
ing the  beauties,  but  also  detecting  the  defects,  of  lan- 
guage, style,  and  thought. 

Too  often  the  drill  in  rhetoric  and  grammar  Avhich  our 
young  men  and  women  receive  in  school  ends  with  the 
mere  technical  drill,  without  an  application  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  either  science  to  the  critical  analysis  and  study 
of  our  literature,  and  thus  much  of  the  practical  benefit 
of  these  studies  is  lost. 

A  Limited  Number  of  Authors. — It  is  important  in 
studvint'-  literature  in  the  manner  here  suirgested  that 
but  a  limited  number  of  authors  be  taken.  A  larger 
number  would  not  only  tend  to  confuse  the  mind  of 
the  learner,  but  also  give  him  only  a  partial  knowl- 
edge of  any  one  of  them. 

The  Plan. — A  good  plan  is  to  study  first  a  brief  biog- 
ra])hv  of  the  particular  author  discussed,  and  acquire  a 
knowledge  of  his  work;  also  read  a  short  criticism  of 
his  stvle  and  character  as  an  author;  and,  finally,  exam- 
ine criticallv  one  or  more  of  his  masterpieces. 

Logical  Analysis. — It  is  important  to  study  some  of  the 
masterpieces  of  one's  language  critically,  for  the  reason 
that  it  causes  the  student  to  make  a  practical  application 
of  his  knowledge  of  rhetoric  and  grammar.  These  are 
to  him  no  longer  abstract  sciences;  they  become  import- 
ant instruments  in  his  hands  to  measure  the  thought  and 


2G8  METHODS   OF   TEACHIXQ. 

weigh  tlie  expression  of  those  whose  writings  have  been 
adjudged  the  models  of  literary  style. 

This  logical  analysis  not  only  compels  the  pupil  to 
apply  his  knowledge  of  grammar  and  rhetoric,  but  it 
also  enables  him  to  appreciate  the  beauties  of  both 
thought  and  expression  as  well  as  detect  the  faults  of 
the  various  writers.  It  thus  fosters  a  taste  for  the  pure 
and  the  exalted  in  literature,  and  prepares  the  student  to 
form  a  vigorous  style  of  his  own.  Literary  criticism  is 
always  conducive  to  literary  growth  and  development. 

III.  History  of  Literature. 

The  literature  of  a  language  is  closely  connected  with 
the  history  of  the  people  speaking  that  language,  and  to 
a  great  extent  the  history  of  a  literature  is  the  history  of 
a  nation.  The  current  history  of  a  nation  has  much  to  do 
with  shaping  the  literature  of  that  nation  from  age  to 
age,  and  the  progress  or  the  decline  of  a  people  may 
be  traced  in  its  literature. 

The  study  of  the  history  of  literature  can  be  pursued 
most  profitably  by  those  wlio  have  studied  the  history 
not  only  of  their  OMm  country,  but  of  the  world.  To 
study  the  history  of  literature  without  this  general 
historical  knowledge  will  give  us  but  a  limited  view, 
and  enable  us  to  judge  only  partially  of  the  influences 
of  the  different  literary  epochs  on  their  successors. 

The  student  of  general  literature  should  be  liberal- 
minded  and  examine  closely  into  the  habits  of  the  peo- 
ple during  any  literary  era,  in  order  to  determine  their 
influence  in  the  formation  of  the  literary  style  which 
characterized  that  era.  He  should  also  consider  care- 
fully the  reflex  influence  which  the  literature  of  the 


ENGLISH    LITERATURE.  269 

period  exercised  on  the  people.  It  will  be  well  for 
him  also  to  see  clearly  what  the  influence  of  any  one 
period  or  epoch  may  liave  been  on  its  successor.  All 
this  is  necessary  in  order  to  get  a  comprehensive  view 
of  the  subject;  and  these  close  discriminations  can  be 
made  only  by  those  who  have  considerable  general  his- 
torical knowledge. 

Biograpliical  Sketches. — Considerable  interest  may  be 
awakened  in  the  study  of  literature  by  having  pupils 
write  short  biographical  sketches  of  the  authors  they 
studv. 

Critiques. — When  pupils  have  advanced  sufficiently  to 
be  able  to  criticise  not  only  the  style  and  the  language 
of  an  author,  but  his  productions  as  a  whole,  it  will  be 
found  profitable  to  have  them  write  literary  criticisms 
of  dramas,  poems,  histories,  textbooks,  and  other  works. 
The  effect  will  be  not  only  to  give  them  valuable  literary 
training,  but  also  to  cultivate  a  pure  literary  taste. 


MATHEMATICS. 

CHAPTER  I. 

The  Value  of  MATHEiiATiCAL  Study. 

Mathematics  forms  the  second  department  of  study 
to  be  pursued  by  the  child.  In  our  present  discussion  it 
is  necessary  to  consider  the  method  of  teaching  only 
Arithmetic,  Algebra,  Geometry,  and  their  applications. 
It  is  not  the  province  of  this  work  to  discuss  the  higher 
mathematics  or  show  how  they  may  be  taught,  for  if  a 
pupil  be  well  taught  in  the  three  branches  above  named, 
he  will  have  acquired  such  an  impetus  in  the  methods 
of  mathematical  study  that  not  even  the  most  staid  and 
conservative  professor  will  be  able  to  check  his  enthu- 
siasm. 

The  Value  of  Mathematical  Study. — The  study  of  math- 
ematics is  valuable  in  a  twofold  sense: 

1.  It  gives  Valuable  Mental  Discipline. — It  may  readily 
be  shown  that  nearly  every  intellectual  faculty  is  exer- 
cised and  strengthened  by  mathematical  study.  Prob- 
ably no  study  requires  greater  concentration  of  thought, 
and  none  thus  furnishes  more  valuable  exercise  for  tJie 
culture  of  attention. 

270 


THE    VALUE    OF    MATHEMATICAL    STUDY.         271 

Mathematics  is  valuable  also  in  cultivatino;  man's 
reasoning  powers.  Dr.  AVickersham  says:  "The  habit 
of  rigid  demonstration,  of  close  thinking,  which  math- 
ematics inculcates,  must  be  in  itself  very  valuable.  If 
no  other  kind  of  reasoning  be  practiced,  it  Avill  no  doubt 
lead  to  a  one-sided  culture;  but,  pursued  with  other 
kinds,  any  dano;er  of  this  sort  is  avoided,  and  much  is 
gained  by  introducing  some\Yhat  of  mathematical  exact- 
ness and  clearness,  both  of  thought  and  language,  into 
what  has  been  called  the  'common  reasoning  of  life.'" 

2.  It  is  Valuable  in  its  Application. — There  is  no  other 
science  which  is  so  closely  identiiicd  with  all  the  business- 
affairs  of  life.  Indeed,  there  is  scarcely  any  other  science 
into  which  mathematics  does  not,  to  some  extent,  enter  as 
a  factor.  Natural  Philo30])hy,  Astronomy,  Botany,  Chem- 
istry, Geography,  and  other  studies  in  which  matter  is  con- 
sidered in  its  various  forms  and  movements,  depend  in  a 
measure  on  mathematical  laws. 

It  is  true  that  mathematics  has  received  more  than  its 
due  share  of  attention  in  many,  probably  in  most,  schools, 
but  this  is  not  the  fault  of  the  science  itself.  Let 
teachers  give  to  it  its  due  share  of  attention,  no  more 
and  no  less,  as  compared  with  the  other  branches,  and 
we  shall  find  that  it  is  a  most  valuable  study,  not  only  in 
itself  and  as  a  mental  discipline,  but  also  in  its  ajiplica- 
tiou  to  nearly  all  other  departments  of  knowledge. 


CHAPTER  II. 

Arithmetic. 

I.  Methods. 

Definition. — Arithmetic  is  the  science  of  numbers  and 
the  art  of  computing  by  them.  As  a  science,  it  treats  of 
the  principles,  properties,  and  relations  of  numbers.  As 
an  a7't,  it  applies  this  science  in  computation.  The  term 
arithmetic  is  derived  from  the  Greek  arlthmos,  meaning 
"number." 

Oral  and  Written  Arithmetic. — The  processes  of  solu- 
tion in  arithmetic  are  two :  first,  that  in  which  words 
alone  are  used  in  the  solution,  which  is  properly  known 
as  Oral  Arithmetic ;  and,  secondly,  that  in  which  written 
characters  are  employed,  which  is  properly  known  as 
Written  Arithmetic.  Mental  Arithmetic,  as  applied  to 
oral  solutions,  is  a  misnomer,  as  the  same  mental  process 
is  required  for  a  written  as  for  an  oral  solution.  Iiifel- 
lectual  Arithmetic,  as  a  term,  is  open  to  the  same  objection 
as  mental  arithmetic,  for  the  process  of  solution  in  either 
oral  or  written  arithmetic  is  intellectual,  and  the  term  is 
therefore  equally  applicable  to  either.  If  either  terra 
were  admissible,  the  word  '•'intellectual"  would  be  pref- 
erable to  the  word  "mental,"  for  the  reason  that  the 
latter  terra  includes  also  the  operations  of  the  sensibili- 
ties and  the  will,  which  surely  have  little  to  do  with 
the  solution  of  arithmetical  problems. 

272 


ARITHMETIC.  273 

The  question  here  arises,  Should  Oral  and  "Written 
Arithmetic  be  taught  together  or  separately?  Argu- 
ments on  each  side  liave  been  advanced.  The  advo- 
cates of  the  jdan  of  teaching  the  two  processes  bep- 
aratelv  urge  the  following : 

1.  That  their  object  is  different,  one  being  discipline 
in  analysis,  and  the  other  skill  in  calculation  ; 

2.  That  their  spirit  is  diverse,  one  being  analytic,  and 
the  other  synthetic; 

3.  That  they  cannot  be  properly  co-ordinated; 

4.  And  hence  to  combine  is  to  neglect  oral. 

The  arguments  in  favor  of  teaching  the  two  together 
are  the  following : 

1.  Time  is  economized,  and  thus  an  opportunity  is 
afforded  to  give  more  attention  to  equally  important 
subjects — language-culture,  natural-science  lessons,  and 
others. 

2.  Fewer  textbooks  are  needed. 

3.  When  taught  separately,  oral  arithmetic  becomes  a 
hobby,  to  the  detriment  of  much  more  valuable  school 
studies  and  exercises. 

4.  Oral  solutions  are  simply  prejiaratory  to  written 
work.  The  simpler  processes  under  every  rule  may 
be  taught  best  orally,  and  as  the  work  becomes  com- 
plicated in  character  the  written  work  may  be  substi- 
tuted for  the  oral. 

5.  Both  oral  and  written  methods  require  the  sam(; 
intellectual  process,  and  there  seems,  therefore,  to  be  no 
more  reason  for  separating  the  two  than  exists  for  the 
separation  of  written  and  oral  recitations  in  any  other 
branch  of  study. 

fi.  When   oral  arithmetic  is   pursued  as  a  disiiuctive 

18 


274  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

Btudv,  it  is  liable  to  degenerate  into  mere  memory- 
puzzles,  in  which  the  science  of  algebra  and  the  science 
of  aritiimctic  become  hopelessly  mixed. 

7.  "When  taught  separately  as  oral  and  written  arith- 
metic, it  is  difficult  to  teach  arithmetic  systematically, 
for  the  reason  that  the  progress  in  the  two  methods  is 
not  co-ordinate,  pupils  usually  studying  and  reciting  on 
the  same  day  topics  having  no  connection  and  being  in 
no  way  related,  except  that  they  both  belong  to  the 
science  of  arithmetic. 

There  seems  to  be  really  no  good  reason  why  arith- 
metic should  be  divided  in  the  methods  of  teaching,  any 
more  than  should  algebra,  grammar,  geogra{)hy,  or  any 
other  branch  of  study.  Taking  into  consideration  the 
fact  that  this  science,  when  divided,  monopolizes  almost 
one-third  of  the  school-houi-s  of  the  day,  it  is  unwise  to 
teach  the  oral  and  the  written  process  as  distinct  studies. 

II.   Principles  Governing  the  Teaching  of  Arithmetic. 

1.  The  First  Teaching  In  Arithmetic  should  be  Concrete. — 
Children  think  of  Number  in  connection  with  objects. 
One,  two,  three,  etc.  represent  to  them  one  boy,  two 
apples,  three  birds,  and  the  like.  The  first  exercises  in 
number  should  therefore  be  in  connection  with  objects, 
and  these  objects  should  be  such  as  are  familiar  to  the 
learner.  At  first  it  is  best  that  objects  be  present,  :iiid 
that  the  pupils  be  permitted  to  handle  them.  Gradually, 
however,  the  objects  may  be  dispensed  with  and  the  nanus 
only  be  used. 

Nothing  is  more  convenient  in  the  teaching  of  the 
fundamental  rules  than  a  numeral  frame  or  abacus. 
The    pictures    found     in    priniary    arithmetics    serve    a 


ARITHMETIC.  ii  <  O 

good  purpose  iu  ornamenting  and  beaatifying  the 
page,  but  their  necessity  for  any  other  purpose  may 
be  seriously  doubted. 

2.  The  First  Lessons  in  Arithmetic  should  be  Orah — 
The  pupil  in  learning  to  count,  which  is  the  first  process 
in  arithmetical  work,  should  be  permitted  to  see  and  touch 
the  objects  for  himself.  The  elementary  work  may  be 
made  very  much  more  interesting  by  means  of  oral  exer- 
cises than  otherwise.  Pupils  may  also  be  taught  consid- 
erable arithmetic  before  they  are  able  to  read  a  textbook, 
and  thus  be  prepared,  to  some  extent,  to  use  the  book 
more  intelligently  and  to  better  purpose  when  they  do 
use  it. 

3.  Processes  should  Precede  Rules. — The  child  may  be 
taught  the  mechanical  process  of  performing  au  arithmet- 
ical operation  long  before  he  is  able  to  formulate  the  rule 
which  governs  the  process.  The  proper  plan  is  inductive, 
and  if  the  pupil  be  ])roperly  taught  he  may  in  time  be 
led  to  formulate  the  rule  for  himself,  and  thus  make  it  a 
valuable  part  of  his  own  knowledge,  which  he  may  have 
at  command  on  all  occasions.  The  Jww  should  precede 
the  u-Inj  in  all  primary  instruction.  This  plan  of  teaching 
will  also  serve  to  create  thought,  and  thus  tend  to  answer 
one  of  the  chief  ends  of  education. 

4.  Oral  and  Written  Methods  of  Arithmetic  should  be 
Comhilied. — The  first  steps  in  teaching  any  arithmetical 
topic  should  consist  of  oral  exercises,  until  the  jnipil 
understands  clearly  the  process  and  the  priuciple  em- 
braced, or  until  problems  become  so  complicated  or  so 
difficult  that  the  pupil  is  compelled  to  waste  mental 
energy  iu  the  effort  to  remember  the  various  conditions 
and  statements  of  the  problem.    At  this  stage  the  nature 


276  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

of  the  work  should  be  cliangcd,  and  written  excrcisea 
shouhl  be  substituted  for  the  oral. 

A  pupil  will  acquire  a  knowledge  of  arithmetic  jn-oper 
much  more  readily  when  the  two  })rocesses  are  combined ; 
and  this,  therefore,  seems  to  be  the  proper  method  to 
pursue  throughout  the  whole  course.  Keither  should 
be  neglected  for  the  other,  but  each  should  be  niade  to 
aid  the  other  in  attaining  the  mental  discipline  and  the 
practical  instruction  afforded  by  the  study  of  this  branch. 

5.  Aritlimetical  Instruction  should  Aim  to  be  Practical. 
— Aside  from  thediscij)linary  value  of  arithmetical  study, 
the  scieucc  is  one  of  those  which  have  an  important  bear- 
ing on  the  work  of  evcry-day  life.  Few  branches  of  study 
enter  so  largely  into  the  business-affairs  of  a  community. 
From  the  very  beginning  ])U})ils  may  be  taught  to  see 
that  the  various  processes  learned  have  a  practical  use 
in  life.  Problems  should  therefore  aim  to  include  actual 
business-operatious,  such  as  would  be  likely  to  character- 
ize the  community  in  which  the  subject  is  taught.  Even 
the  simjdest  operations  of  the  beginners  may  be  of  this 
character,  and  the  practical  value  of  the  study  will  at 
once  be  recognized.  It  is  all-important  that  children 
do  not  study  arithmetic  as  a  collection  of  puzzles  on 
which  they  may  give  themselves  gymnastic  training  of 
an  intellectual  character. 

6.  Pupils  should  be  Taught  Principles. — One  of  the 
chief  dangers  in  the  distinctive  study  of  so-called  Mental 
Arithmetic  is  that  pupils  learn  solutions  rather  than  prin- 
ci})les,  and  even  algebraic  problems  are  solved  by  a  sort 
of  arithmetical  process  which  is  committed  by  the  pupil 
as  a  model  solution,  and  is  made  to  answer  for  every 
other  problem  of  a  similar  character.     Pupils,  ly  the 


ARITHMETIC.  277 

solution  of  individual  problems,  should  be  led  induc- 
tively to  understand  the  principles  and  formulate  the 
rules  for  themselves. 

The  student  ^vho  once  understands  the  principles  of 
arithmetic  thoroughly  will  have  no  difficulty  in  apply- 
in"-  them  to  the  solution  of  problems.  Much  time  has 
been  wasted  in  the  past  in  the  solution  of  problems 
"according  to  rule."  This  rule  the  pupil  was  ex- 
pected to  memorize  and  be  able  at  any  time  to  apply. 
But  when  problems  arose  whose  solution  required  the 
application  of  a  number  of  rules,  the  pupil  at  once 
was  led  to  feel  his  utter  ignorance  of  the  science  of 
arithmetic  and  his  inability  to  apply  its  principles. 

The  Plan. 

Counting. — The  child  acquires  its  first  idea  of  number 
by  comparing  one  object  with  more  than  one.  Its  idea 
of  number  is  never  abstract,  and  therefore  the  counting 
at  first  should  be  in  connection  with  objects;  thus,  one  bey, 
two  boys,  three  boys,  etc.,  rather  than  one,  two,  three,  etc. 

The  child  possesses  the  idea  of  number  to  some  extent 
before  it  enters  school.  INIany  convenient  objects  may  be 
found  by  which  the  teacher  is  enabled  to  expand  this 
knowledge,  beginning  at  that  point  where  the  child's 
knowledge  ends,  and  carrying  it  forward  gradually  from 
one  ])oint  to  another.  Grains  of  corn,  beans,  strokes  on 
the  blackboard,  or  sticks  may  be  used  in  the  counting 
exercise,  but  the  most  convenient  object  is  the  numeral 
frame  heretofore  mentioned. 

Pupils  should  be  taught  to  count  not  only  forward, 
but  also  backward.  Counting  backward  bears  the  same 
relation  to  Subtraction  as  counting   forward    bears   to 


278  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

Addition.     Pupils  may  also  be  required  after  a  time  to 
count  without  objects  as  well  as  with  them. 

The  teacher  siionld  be  careful  not  to  hurry  his  pi  pils 
in  the  matter  of  counting.  Some  will  learn  more  rapid- 
ly than  others,  and  the  temptation  will  be  to  worry  t.hose 
who  think  slowly  in  order  to  have  them  keej)  up  with 
the  brighter  ones.  He  should  also  see  that  his  pupils  do 
not  count  without  understanding.  Pupils  are  often  able 
to  count  to  a  hundred  or  more,  who  scarcely  know  the 
meaning  of  the  words  they  use.  The  best  test  to  dis- 
cover whether  they  are  counting  intelligently  or  not  is 
to  place  a  number  of  objects  before  them,  and  have  them 
count  any  i*equired  number  to  be  placed  aside. 

Notation  and  Numeration. — Notation  and  Numeration 
should  be  taught  together.  When  the  j)U])il  luis  learned 
to  count  one  oljcct,  the  teacher  may  at  the  same  time 
write  on  the  board  the  word  one  and  the  fiirure  1,  the 
pupil  in  each  case  being  required  to  call  the  word  or  the 
figure  by  name,  and  hold  an  object  in  his  hand  to  show 
that  he  comj)rehends  the  value  and  relation  of  the  word 
and  the  figure.  In  a  similar  manner  he  may  be  taught 
the  Mord  two  and  the  figure  2,  and  their  relation  to 
two  objects.  In  this  way,  also,  the  other  numbers  up  to 
nine  may  be  taught.  The  puj)il  should  in  these  exer- 
cises be  required  to  reproduce  the  figure  and  the  word 
on  th-e  blackboard,  as  also  any  number  previously  taught, 
wher  required  by  the  teacher. 

V'  hen  the  pupil  reaches  ten,  he  may  be  taught  that 
ten  ones  are  called  teji,  which  is  written  10;  and  two 
tens,  tivenfy,  written  £0 ;  three  tens,  tJwfy,  written  30 ; 
and  so  on  to  00. 


ARITHMETIC.  279 

The  noxt  step  is  to  teach  the  numbers  from  te7i  to 
mnetcen.     liere  he  may  be  taught  that — 

One  ten  and  one  is  called  ela-en,  written  11 ; 
One  ten  and  two  is  called  twelve,  written  12 ; 
One  ten  and  three  is  called  thirteen,  written  13 ; 
One  ten  and  four  is  called /owr^een,  written  14- ; 

etc.,  etc.,  etc. 

From  this  point  onward  the  numbers  are  readily- 
taught.  A  table  similar  to  the  following,  in  which  the 
teacher  gives  the  pupils  instruction  as  to  the  meaning 
of  each  number,  will  soon  acquaint  tiiem  with  both  the 
writing  and  the  reading  of.  numbers  to  almost  any 
extent : 

1  10  100  1000  10,000 

2  20  200  2000  20,000 

3  30  300  3000  30,000 

4  40  400  4000  40,000 

5  50  500  5000  50,000 

6  60  600  6000  60,000 

etc.,  etc.,  etc. 

The  teacher  should  also  teacli  the  relation  of  tens  to 
units,  hundreds  to  tens,  thousands  to  hundreds,  and  so 

on. 

Pupils  should  have  numerous  exercises  in  both  read- 
ing and  writing  numbers,  and  when  they  make  mistakes 
they  should  be  led,  by  judicious  questions  on  the  part  of 
the  teacher,  to  discover  and  correct  these  mistakes  for 
themselves. 

After  having  learned  to  read  and  write  as  far  as 
thousands,  the  pupils  may  be  taught  the  use  and  mean- 


280  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

ing  of  groups  or  -periods,  the  tcaclier  showing  that  each 
third  period  takes  a  new  name,  and  that  the  intermediate 
places  are  tens  and  hundreds  of  the  group. 

The  pupil  should  not  be  kept  reading  and  wiiting 
numbers  until  he  has  mastered  these  subjects  thoroughly. 
He  may  proceed  with  the  simpler  exercises  in  the  funda- 
mental rules,  but  he  should  have  frequent  reviews  of 
Notation  and  Numeration  until  he  is  entirely  familiar 
with  both. 

Integers. 

Addition. — In  teaching  Addition  the  first  lessons  should 
be  in  connection  with  objects.  An  oral  exercise  should 
precede  any  Avritteu  work.  Here,  again,  the  numeral 
frame  will  be  found  convenient.  The  teacher  can  hold 
the  frame  before  the  pupils,  and  every  operation  may 
be  illustrated  and  verified  on  the  frame. 

When  pupils  have  learned  to  count  by  i's,  they  may 
with  great  profit  be  taught  gradually  to  count  or  add 
by  ^'s,  3%  4-'s,  etc.,  up  to  lO's.  This  method  of  count- 
ing by  combinations  will  prove  of  special  advantage 
in  subsequent  business-applications  by  enabling  the  stu- 
dent to  add  both  rapidly  and  correctly. 

The  first  lessons  in  written  addition  should  consist  of 
concrete  numbers  whose  sum  does  not  exceed  nine  in  any 
column.  In  connection  with  these  lessons  the  pn]>ils 
should  be  taught  how  to  write  the  numbers  so  that  in 
adding,  as  a  matter  of  convenience,  units  may  be  placed 
under  units,  tens  under  tens,  etc.  They  should  also  be 
taught  the  use  of  the  signs  +  and  =,  and  how  to  read 
expressions  containing  these  signs. 

In  this  connection  may  be  taught  also  the  addition  of 


ARITHMETIC.  281 

some  abstract  numbers.  If  the  pupil  has  been  carefully 
taught  from  the  first,  he  Avill  have  little  diSiculty  iu 
learning  this  part  of  addition. 

The  second  series  of  lessons  should  also  begin  with 
concrete  numbers,  but  should  include  such  that  the  sum 
of  one  or  more  columns  may  exceed  nine.  The  first  les- 
sons should  be  oral,  in  order  that  the  pupil  may  first 
learn  how  to  express  the  sum  in  words.  AVhen  once 
he  can  add  orally,  he  should  have  exercises  in  adding 
single  columns  and  writing  the  results,  and,  following 
these,  exercises  containing  two  columns,  and  so  on, 
making   the  work   gradually    more  and    more  difficult. 

The  teacher  should  first  teach  how  the  mechanical 
part  of  the  work  is  done  by  placing  himself  at  the 
board,  and  permitting  the  pupils  to  add  while  he 
shows  them  how  to  write  the  result  and  what  to  do 
with  the  number  not  written  on  the  board.  After  the 
pupils  have  once  learned  how  to  write  the  results,  they 
should  be  sent  to  the  board  and  the  teacher  should  dic- 
tate a  number  of  problems  to  them,  grading  the  exercises 
iu  difficulty,  and  drill  until  he  sees  that  the  children  are 
able  to  do  the  w-ork  for  themselves. 

If  the  teacher  have  a  mathematical  chart,  he  may 
now  give  them  a  number  of  questi^ous  to  be  solved,  or 
he  mav  place  several  columns  on  the  blackboard  and 
indicate  what  parts  may  be  added,  as  the  upper  four 
lines,  the  lower  six  lines,  etc.,  so  as  to  give  the  pujjils 
a  number  of  problems  on  which  to  practice  and  acquire 
expertness. 

The  third  series  of  lessons  should  include  a  number 
of  practical  reading-problems,  such  as  are  likely  to  occur 
in  business-operations,  as  the  cost  of  certain  articles  pur- 


282  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

chased  at  a  store  or  the  sum  of  the  numbei  of  yards  of 
carpeting  in  several  rooms. 

As  a  variation  of  tliis  exercise  the  pupil  may  \\\t]\ 
profit  be  required  to  originate  some  problems,  which  he 
may  either  solve  or  have  referred  to  other  members  of 
tlio  class.  This  exercise  will  tend  not  only  to  make  liim 
think,  but  it  will  also  make  him  thoroughly  acquainted 
with  the  principles  of  the  study  he  pursues. 

Subtraction. — The  same  general  principles  govern  the 
teaching  of  Subtraction  as  a})ply  to  the  teaching  of 
Addition.  By  some  writers  it  is  held  that  the  two 
subjects  should  be  taught  together ;  and  this  may  be 
done  with  success,  to  a  certain  extent,  in  the  simjiler 
exercises.  Oral  exercises  should  precede  written  work, 
and  the  first  lessons  should  consist  of  concrete  numbers. 

The  pupil  should  first  subtract  by  /'s  from  a  given 
number  downward  ;  thus,  20,  19,  18,  17,  16,  etc.  Fol- 
lowing these  exercises  should  be  others  in  subtractinij 
by  ^'s;  as,  50,  48,  46,  44,  etc.,  51,  49,  47,  45,  etc. ;  and 
thus  also  by  <5"s,  ^'s,  5's,  etc.  The  exercise  may  be 
varied  by  counting  both  forward  and  backward  by 
^'s,  3^s,  and  so  on. 

The  first  written  exercises  in  subtraction  should  consist 
of  very  simple  questions,  in  which  no  figure  of  the  sub- 
trahend is  of  greater  value  than  the  corresponding  one  in 
the  minuend.  The  first  numbers  should  be  concrete,  and 
following  these  there  may  be  exercises  also  in  abstract 
numbers,  together  with  practical  reading-problems. 

The  second  series  of  lessons  in  subtraction  should 
consist  first  of  easy  questions  in  M'hich  one  or  more 
6<]rures  in  the  subtrahend  are  of  greater  value  than  the 


ARITHMETIC.  283 

coiTcsp ending  figures  iu  tlic  minuend.  The  explanation 
is  best  reached  by  a  few  simple  problems  to  be  solved 
orally;  thus,  "Six  sheep  from  thirteen  sheep,  leave  how 
many?"  The  pii[)il  ean  answer  this  question  readily. 
Kow  let  the  work  be  placed  upon  the  blackboard.  The 
j)npil  will  see  at  once  that  6  cannot  be  subtracted  from  3, 
and  he  will  see  quite  as  readily  that  it  can  be  subtracted 
from  13,  as  was  done  in  the  oral  solution.  Let  a  number 
of  similar  problems  be  given,  the  teacher  illustrating  the 
oral  process  by  written  work  on  the  board.  The  minuend 
in  none  of  these  problems  should  exceed  nineteen. 

The  nextstej)  is  that  of  taking  problenis  whose  minuend 
exceeds  nineteen;  thus,  "Eight  sheep  from  twenty-two 
sheep,  leave  how  many  ?"  If  the  ])upil  is  not  able  to 
answer  this  orally,  let  him  answer  it  by  counting  on  the 
numeral  frame  or  by  writing  strokes  on  the  board,  and 
crasiniT  the  number  to  be  subtracted.  Havin<i;  secured 
the  proper  result,  let  the  teacher  place  the  subtrahend  8 
on  the  blackboard  in  its  proper  place  under  the  minuend 
22.  He  should  then  show  that  8  units  cannot  be  taken 
from  2  units;  hence  he  takes  one  of  the  2  tens,  which  is 
equal  to  10  units;  these  he  unites  with  the  2  units,  and 
he  has  12  units:  8  units  taken  from  12  units  leave  4 
units.  Having  taken  awav  one  of  the  2  tens,  there  is 
but  1  ten  left;  therefore  there  remain  1  ten  and  4  units, 
or  14,  which  the  child  sees  is  the  same  result  he  secured 
bv  counting  the  8  objects  from  the  22.  The  teacher 
should  solve  a  number  of  questions  in  this  way,  let- 
ting the  pupils  do  all  the  work,  if  possible,  except  the 


writing. 


The   pupils  also  should    then   have  exercises  on  the 
blackboard  until  the  teacher  sees  that  they  understand 


284  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

the  mechani:;al  process,  and  then  thcv  may  be  directed 
to  solve  the  problems  in  the  textbook  which  they  use. 

The  plan  of  ''borrowing"  and  "carrying"  the  author 
believes  to  be  both  undesirable  and  illogical.  The  truth 
is,  we  never  borrow  in  subtraction  ;  we  simply  convert  a 
unit  of  a  higher  denomination  to  units  of  a  lower.  Pupils 
readily  become  quite  as  expert  by  the  method  here  advo- 
cated as  by  any  other,  and  they  see  the  reason  for  every 
step  they  take. 

In  questions  like  the  following,  "Subtract  IG  from 
900,"  we  simply  convert  1  hundred  into  tens,  and  1  of 
these  into  units;  we  then  have  8  hundreds,  9  tens,  and 
10  units,  when  the  question  becomes  as  easy  as  any  of  the 
others,  and  the  explanation  as  simple. 

Combination  Exercises. — As  soon  as  pu})ils  can  both 
subtract  and  add,  they  should  be  required  to  solve  prac- 
tical problems  which  combine  both  processes;  and  these 
combination  problems  should  be  a  prominent  feature  of 
the  work  from  this  ])oint  forward  throughout  the  Arith- 
metic. Pupils  should  have  exercises  in  them  in  connec- 
tion with  every  rule  taught. 

Definitions. — The  definitions  of  the  various  terms  may 
be  taught  as  the  pupils  proceed  from  one  subject  to  an- 
other, though  the  teacher  should  never  require  the  ])upils 
to  recite  them  by  number. 

Multiplication. — It  is  well  to  show  pupils  when  they 
begin  the  study  of  Multiplication  that  this  is  simply  a 
short  or  concise  method  of  a  special  case  of  addition  ; 
thus,  that  six  times  7  added  and  six  times  7  multiplied 
produce  the  same  result. 

TJie  MidtipUcation  Table. — Before  much  effective  work 


ARITHMETIC.  285 

can  be  done  in  the  tcachiug  of  Multiplication  it  is  neces- 
sary that  the  pupil  should  know  tlie  Multiplication 
Table,  at  least  as  far  as  nine  times  nine.  The  old  plan 
of  acquiring  this  knowledge  was  for  the  pupil  to  spend 
weeks,  and  often  months,  in  attempting  to  memorize  the 
table  as  far  as  twelve  times  twelve.  The  result  was  often 
very  unsatisfactory,  for  the  reason  tliat  some  Mere  not 
able  to  memorize  readily,  and  others  could  see  no  prac- 
tical use  of  the  table,  while  still  others,  who  could  recite 
the  table  readily  from  beginning  to  end,  could  give  the 
product  of  scarcely  any  two  intermediate  numbers. 

The  better  plan  is  that  of  having  pupils  construct  the 
table  for  themselves,  or  at  least  as  much  as  it  may  be 
necessary  for  them  to  know  at  a  special  time.  This  will 
not  only  show  them  the  practical  use  of  the  table,  but  it 
will  also  serve  to  impress  it  on  their  memory.  It  is 
necessary,  however,  that  they  should  also  repeat  the  table 
frequently  as  far  as  they  have  learned  it,  and  that  they 
should  occasionally  write  it  out  on  their  slates.  It  will 
also  be  of  some  advantage  to  recite  it  occasionally  in 
concert,  or  even  to  sing  it;  but  the  teacher  should  see 
that  pupils  do  not  become  boisterous  in  these  exercises. 

In  order  to  make  the  pupil's  knowledge  of  the  table 
valuable  and  permanent  the  teacher  should  require  him 
to  apply  it  frequently  in  exercises  similar  to  the  follow- 
ing:  "Multiply  by  3  from  1  to  6;"  "Multiply  by  5 
from  2  to  7." 

The  first  written  lessons  in  multiplication  should  con- 
sist of  examples  in  which  there  is  but  a  single  figure  in 
the  multiplier.  The  child  should  be  taught  that  the 
method  of  writing  the  result  is  the  same  as  in  addition, 
and  that  the   figure  not  written  down  is  added  to  the 


286  METHODS   OF   TEACHIXa. 

next  result.  It  is  sufficient  in  the  jjriraary  work  to  teach 
the  process  alone,  leaving  the  explanation  and  the  reason 
for  future  lessons. 

The  second  series  of  lessons  should  consist  of  those 
having  two  or  more  figures  in  the  multiplier.  Hero, 
again,  it  is  best  to  teach  at  first  the  process  only,  and 
postpone  the  explanation  of  the  reason  for  each  step 
until  the  child  is  able  to  understand  it  fully.  As  pupils 
lipcome  more  advanced,  they  may  be  required  not  only 
to  give  every  step  of  the  process  of  solution,  but  also 
state  the  reason. 

Short  Methods. — When  pupils  have  learned  the  ordi- 
nary process  of  multiplication  thm-oiighly,  or  when  they 
review  the  subject  of  arithmetic,  they  may  be  taught 
some  of  the  shorter  methods  of  multiplication. 

Among  these  may  be  included  the  Mdhod  hij  aliquot 
parts  of  one  hundred  and  the  Method  of  midtiphjing 
when  the  multiplier  is  near  some  jwiccr  of  ten,  as  998, 
where  the  shortest  method  would  be  to  multiply  by  1000 
and  subtract  2  times  the  number. 

Division. — Division  is  the  reverse  of  multijdication  ; 
a  knowledge  of  the  multiplication  table  is  thereft)re  quite 
as  necessary  to  teach  divisiou  properly  as  it  is  to  teach 
multiplication.  Thus,  it  is  evident  tiiat  if  9  times  7  is 
(j3,  7  is  contained  in  63  nine  times.  A  division  table 
may  be  constructed  from  the  multii)licati()n  table,  but 
there  hardly  seems  to  be  a  necessity  for  it,  for  the  very 
question,  "Why  is  7  contained  in  G3  nine  times?" 
throws  the  pupil  back  on  his  knowledge  of  the  multi- 
plication table,  and  he  answers,  "  Because  9  times  7  is 
63." 


ARITHMETIC.  287 

Sliort  Division. — "Wliat  is  known  as  Short  Division  is 
usually  taught  before  Long  Division,  chiefly  because  it 
deals  with  smaller  numbers  and  is  easier.  The  divisors 
in  Short  Division  do  not  usually  exceed  12,  and  only 
the  partial  quotients  are  written,  the  processes  being  per- 
formed mentally.  It  presents  scarcely  any  difficulty  in 
teaching,  and  it  need  not  here  be  discussed  as  a  special 
method. 

Long  Division. — Probably  more  time  is  given  to 
mastering  Long  Division  than  any  other  process  in 
arithmetic.  Much  of  the  difficulty  which  the  pupil 
experiences  arises  from  the  fact  that  the  problems  be- 
come difficult  too  rapidly.  Only  such  questions  should 
be  taken  at  first  as  can  be  solved  readily  by  the  process 
of  Short  Division  ;  and  when  the  pupil  performs  the 
operation  l)y  Short  Division  the  teacher  should  solve  the 
same  i)roblem  by  the  i)rocess  of  Long  Division,  and 
then  show  the  \n\\n\  that  the  two  methods  of  procedure 
do  not  diffi-r  materially,  except  that  in  one  all  the  ope- 
rations are  placed  on  the  board,  while  in  the  other  only 
the  partial  results  are  placed  there.  A  great  number  of 
simple  problems  that  may  be  solved  by  either  of  the 
processes  should  be  given,  and  this  jilan  should  be  con- 
tinued until  the  pupil  learns  to  periorui  the  ojieration 
bv  Lono-  Division  rcadilv,  after  which  more  diificult 
problems  may  be  assigned.  When  the  divisor  is  to  con- 
sist of  two  or  more  numbers,  the  first  divisors  used 
should  be  10,  11,  and  12,  in  order  that  the  transition 
niav  be  made  o-radnallv. 

Short  Methods. — When  pui)ils  have  learned  both  pro- 
cesses, they  may  be  taught  some  of  the  short  methods  of 
division,  including  the  Method  of  dividing  when  there  art 


288  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

ciphers  to  the  right  of  the  divisor  and  the  Method  of  divid- 
ing by  factors. 

Equal  Parts. — The  process  of  division  includes  not 
only  the  method  of  finding  how  often  one  number  is 
contained  in  another,  but  also  the  division  of  a  number 
into  equal  parts.  In  such  case  both  dividend  and  divisor 
niay  for  the  time  be  considered  abstract.  Thus,  in  the 
question,  "If  16  acres  of  land  cost  1G80  dollars,  how 
much  does  1  acre  cost?"  the  solution  would  be  as 
follows:  "If  16  acres  cost  1680  dollars,  each  acre  costs 
as  many  dollars  as  16  is  contained  times  in  1680,  or  105 
dollars." 

The  Gruhe  Method. 

Grube's  method  of  teaching  primary  arithmetic,  M'hich 
is  used  extensively  in  Germany,  consists  in  teaching 
during  the  first  year  all  possible  combinations  and  com- 
parisons of  numbers  from  1  to  10.  It  is  intended  chiefly 
for  pupils  from  the  age  of  four  to  the  age  of  six.  Thus, 
in  treating  of  the  number  3  the  child  is  taught  that  1  + 
1  +  1  =  3;  2  +  1=3;  1  +  2=3;  3-1=2;  3-2  = 
1;  3X1  =  3;  1X3  =  3;  3-1=3;  and  in  treating  of 
the  number  4,  the  following :  1  +  1  +  1  +  1=4;  4  —  1 
-1-1-1=0;  4-1-1-1=1;  4-1-1=2;  4 
-1=3;  4X1=4;  1X4=4;  4-1  =  4.  2  +  1  +  1 
=  4;  2+2=4;  4-2  =  2;  2X2=4;  4-2  =  2;  3 
+  1=4;  1  +  3  =  4;  4-3  =  1;  1X3  +  1=4;  3X1 
-l-l=4j  4  —  3  =  1,  and  1  remaining. 

The  method  has  some  prominent  advocates  among 
American  teachers,  and  many  quite  as  eminent  oppo- 
nents. In  may  be  said  here  that  even  if  the  method 
were  strictly  philosophical,  its  practical  value  might  be 
seriously    questioned.     Its    usefulness,    aside    from    xii 


ARITHMETIC.  289 

novelty,  is  at  least  doubtful,  as  compared  with  the 
practical  and  natural  methods  pursued  by  the  best 
American  teachers.  Its  application  is  of  course  limited 
to  the  four  fundamental  rules.  It  would  seem,  there- 
fore, naturally  to  follow  the  teaching  of  these  rules, 
rather  than  precede  them. 

Factoring. 

Ability  to  factor  numbers  readily  and  rapidly  is  a 
great  aid  in  performing  the  operations  of  many  parts 
of  arithmetic.  This  is  particularly  true  of  the  Greatest 
Common  Divisor,  the  Least  Common  Multiple,  Fractions, 
etc.  It  is  held  by  some  teachers  to  be  quite  as  important 
for  the  pu^iil  to  memorize  the  factors  of  numbers  below 
100  as  it  is  to  know  the  multiplication  table.  It  cer- 
tainly is  a  great  help  in  making  one  expert  in  the  per- 
formance of  arithmetical  work. 

Frequent  exercises  in  factoring  will  prove  valuable  to 
all  students.  As  an  occasional  drill  it  is  suggested  that 
the  class  be  placed  at  the  blackboard,  and  that  the  alter- 
nate pupils  take  odd  and  even  numbers,  as  dictated  by 
the  teacher,  and  write  tlie  results  only.     Thus, 

20  =  2,  2,  5.  24  =  2,  2,  2,  3. 

21=3,7.  25  =  5,5. 

22  =  2,11.  26  =  2,13. 


23  =  23.  27  =  3,  3, 


o 


Here  also  may  be  tiUight  all  the  definitions  of  factors, 
prime,  composite,  and  other  terms ;  also  all  definitions 
concerning  multiples  and  divisors. 

Suggestions. — It  is  best  to  teach  beginners  but  a  single 
method  of  finding  the  Greatest  Common  Divisor  or  the 

13 


290  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

Least  Common  Multiple  of  numbers.  ]\Iore  than  tliia 
tends  to  confuse.  After  pupils  have  once  become  thor- 
oughly familiar  with  one  method,  they  may  then  be 
taught  others,  but  never  so  long  as  they  are  apt  to 
confuse  the  methods  and  thus  lose  the  benefit  of  all. 
The  same  remark  will  apply  to  other  arithmetical  pro- 
cesses:  one  of  the  mistakes  we  make  is  that  of  attempt- 
ing to  teach  at  first  more  than  the  mind  of  the  young 
learner  is  able  to  retain. 

Fractions. 

The  idea  of  a  fraction  is  most  readily  taught  by  means 
of  objects.  These  may  be  divided  so  as  to  illustrate  the 
idea  of  a  half,  a  third,  a  fourth,  etc.  Care  should  be 
taken  to  use  at  first  only  such  objects  as  lose  their  unity 
by  division  into  parts.  Sticks,  lines,  and  strings  simply 
divide  themselves  into  shorter  sticks,  lines,  and  strings, 
and  are  therefore  not  the  best  illustrations  to  use.  Ap- 
ples, potatoes,  sheets  of  paper,  and  the  like,  each  of 
which  loses  its  unity  by  division,  answer  the  purpose 
of  illustration  much  better. 

In  teaching  the  idea  of  a  fraction  the  child  may  be 
taught  at  once  how  to  write  it  both  literally  and  by 
figures.  Thus,  if  the  expression  "one-half"  be  taught, 
tiie  teacher  should  place  on  the  board  both  the  word  one- 
half  and  the  fraction  ^  expressed  in  figures.  The  same 
plan  should  be  followed  in  the  teaching  of  other  fractions. 

Reduction  of  Fractions. — 1.  Whole  Numbers  to  Frac- 
tions.— After  the  pupil  has  acquired  the  idea  of  a  frac- 
tion, and  learned  how  to  write  and  read  fractions,  the 
first  step  is  to  teach  how  to  reduce  whole  or  mixed 
numbers  to  fractious.     The  first  lessons  in  this  process 


ARITHMETIC.  291 

should  be  in  connection  with  such  objects  as  are  familiar 
to  the  child,  in  order  that  he  may  fully  and  readily  com- 
prehend each  step  of  the  process.  Very  simple  problems 
should  be  given,  sucli  as  "  How  many  halves  in  an  or- 
ange?" "  How  many  fourths  in  an  apple?" 

From  this  tiie  transition  will  readily  be  made  to  such 
questions  as  "How  many  halves  in  3  apples?"  "How 
many  fourths  in  2  oranges?"  After  the  pupils  have 
become  familiar  with  the  process  of  thus  reducing 
concrete  numbers,  further  exercises  should  be  given  in 
the  reduction  of  abstract  numbers  :  and  when  thev  have 
once  learned  to  reduce  both  concrete  and  abstract  whole 
numbers  readily  to  fractions,  they  should  be  taught  the 
reduction  of  mixed  numbers  to  fractions,  using  at  first 
such  questions  as  "  Plow  many  half  dollars  in  2\  dol- 
lars?" "How  many  thirds  of  a  pie  in  3|- pies?"  From 
these  the  change  should  be  made  to  simple  abstract 
numbers,  as  "How  many  fifths  in  3|-?"  and  similar 
questions. 

All  these  preliminary  exercises  should  be  by  oral 
solution,  though  sometimes  it  will  be  found  valuable 
for  the  teacher  to  require  a  strictly  mental  solution,  in 
which  the  child  performs  the  Avhole  process  mentally 
and  announces  the  result  only.  This  is  a  valuable 
exercise  for  cultivating  the  power  of  attention,  and  it 
affords  also  valuable  memory-culture. 

The  written  exercises  or  solutions  should  follow  the 
oral  and  the  mental,  and  should  consist  of  problems  of 
a  more  difficult  nature  than  those  given  for  oral  solution. 

2.  Improper  Fractions  to  Whole  or  Mixed  Numbers. — 
The  second  step  in  Reduction  is  that  of  changing  im- 
proper fractions  to  whole  or  mixed   numbers.     Here, 


292  METHODS    OF    TEACHIXG. 

also,  the  first  exercises  should  be  oral,  and  should  be  iu 
connection  with  familiar  objects.  Questions  similar  to 
the  following  will  be  found  appropriate  for  the  first 
exercises:  "How  many  dollars  in  2  half-dollars?"  "How 
many  pies  in  f  of  a  pie?"  "How  many  apples  in  ^  ap- 
ples?" These  questions  should  be  followed  by  those 
dealing  with  abstract  numbers;  and  the  process  should 
be  continued  until  the  child  can  readily  solve  problems 
or  give  the  result  correctly,  without  hesitation,  in  simple 
numbers  containino-  fractions  as  far  as  tenths  or  twelfths. 
When  the  pupil  has  once  learned  to  perform  the  reduc- 
tion of  fractions  to  whole  numbers  readily  he  should  have 
repeated  exercises  iu  connection  with  the  reduction  of  im- 
proper fractions  to  mixed  numbers,  beginning,  as  before, 
with  concrete  numbers,  and  proceeding  to  abstract.  In 
the  written  process,  either  of  reducing  whole  numbers  to 
fractions  or  fractions  to  whole  numbers,  the  child  should, 
if  possible,  be  permitted  to  derive  and  formulate  the  rule, 
though  the  teacher  should  be  careful  to  see  that  it  is  cor- 
rectly worded,  so  as  to  express  exactly  what  is  meant. 

3.  Fractions  to  Equivalent  Fractions  having  Higher 
Terms. — The  same  general  plan  of  procedure  may  be 
followed  here  as  in  the  two  preceding  cases.  The  first 
questions  should  be  very  easy,  and  the  change  to  the 
more  difficult  should  be  very  gradual.  The  first  ques- 
tions may  be  somewhat  like  the  following  :  "  How  many 
fourths  of  an  apple  in  -1-  an  apple?"  The  solution  would 
be  as  follows ;  "  Since  there  are  |-  in  one  apple,  in  -^  an 
apple  there  is  ^  of  |^,  or  |^."  The  next  series  of  questions 
should  consist  of  those  havinsr  for  the  numerator  a  num- 
bpr  greater  than  1;  thus,  "How  many  tenths  in  i?" 

4.  Fractions  to  thei-*-  Loicest  Tei^ms. — The  geueirJ  i:»lan 


ARITHMETIC.  293 

of  procedure  here  also  is  tlie  same  as  in  the  preceding 
cases.  The  solution  of  the  simplest  questions  sliould 
be  somewhat  like  the  following:  "How  many  thirds 
in  |-?"  Solution.  Since  |-  =  |-,  there  are  as  many  thirds 
in  4.  as  -|  is  contained  times  in  ^,  or  two  thirds. 

In  connection  with  these  two  cases  may  be  taught  tlie 
principles  relative  to  multiplying  or  dividing  both  nu- 
merator and  denominator  of  a  fraction  by  the  same 
number. 

5.  Compound  Fractions  to  Simple  Ones. — The  pupils 
may  be  taught  liere  that  a  fraction  of  a  fraction,  as  ^ 
of  f,  is  called  a  Compound  Fraction.  In  reducing  such 
fractions  to  simple  ones  the  following  solution  may  be 
followed:  "Since  ^  equals  -f^,  and  |  equals  -^^,  l  of  f 
is  ^  of  j^ij,  or  3^."  The  pupil,  by  means  of  similar 
questions,  may  be  led  to  see  that  a  new  denominator 
may  be  secured  by  multiplying  together  the  denomina- 
tors of  the  two  parts  of  the  compound  fraction.  Thus, 
in  I"  of  I  a  new  denominator  is  found  in  3X5  =  15. 
For  the  present,  all  the  child  needs  is  the  mechanical 
process;  the  reason  for  the  method  may  be  taught 
later. 

The  second  grade  of  problems  should  consist  of  those 
whose  numerator  is  greater  than  1 ;  as,  "  What  is  f  of  |?" 
The  solution  might  be  given  as  follows:  |-  equals  -j^;  -^ 
of  yV  ^s  1%)  ^"^^  t  of  y^2"  is  2  times  ^,  equal  to  y%,  or  1. 
Or  the  following  form  of  solution  may  be  taken  :  -|-  of  |- 
is  jV;  ^  of  f  is  three  times  as  much,  or  -^;  and  f  of  |- 
is  twice  ^,  equal  to  -^j,  or  ^. 

The  written  problems  may  consist  of  several  simple 
fractions;  as  f  of  f  of  f,  and  similar  combinations. 
Here  also  the  pupil  should  be  taught  the  mechanical 


294  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

process  of  multiplying  the  numerators  together  and  the 
denominators  together.  He  may  also  be  taught  the  plan 
of  cancelling  like  factors  in  numerator  and  denominator, 
or  be  required,  as  iu  Case  4,  to  reduce  the  fractions  to  lower 
terms. 

ComiEon  Denominator. — A  thorough  knowledge  of  the 
preceding  cases  will  enable  the  pupil  to  reduce  fractions 
readily  to  a  common  denominator.  It  may  be  well  to 
show  to  the  learner  the  necessity  for  fractions  having  a 
common  denominator  in  order  that  they  may  be  either 
added  or  subtracted.  Thus,  we  cannot  add  f  and  i  with- 
out reducino;  to  20ths  or  some  other  denominator  common 
to  both,  any  more  than  we  can  add  3  horses  and  2  sheep. 
AVe  can  add  ^  and  2%>  however,  just  as  we  can  add  3 
animals  and  2  animals. 

The  first  questions  should  have  the  required  denom- 
inator stated  in  the  question.  Thus,  "Reduce  f  and  | 
to  12ths,"  or,  "  How  many  12ths  in  f  and  f  ?"  Follow- 
ing these, the  same  problems  maybe  put  in  different  lan- 
guage. Thus,  "  Reduce  f  and  f  to  fractious  having  a 
common  denominator." 

The  Least  Common  Denominator  may  be  taught  in 
much  the  same  way,  except  that  pupils  must  be  led  to 
see  that  the  least  common  denominator  is  the  least  num- 
ber that  will  contain  all  the  given  denominations  without 
a  remainder. 

Addition  and  Subtraction  of  Fractions. — AVhcn  the 
pupil  has  once  thoroughly  mastered  the  elementary  prin- 
ciples of  fractions,  as  heretofore  explained,  he  will  have 
little  trouble  to  learn  the  processes  of  adding  and  sub- 
tracting fractions.     The  chief  thing  for  him  to  remember 


ARITHMETIC.  295 

is  that  only  similar  fractions  can  be  added  or  subtracted, 
and  that  fractions  must  first  be  reduced  to  a  common  de- 
nominator before  the  processes  of  addition  and  subtrac- 
tion can  be  performed. 

Let  the  pupils  have  ample  exercises,  particularly  in 
the  addition  and  subtraction  of  fractional  numbers  con- 
taining halves,  thirds,  fourfhs,  sixths^  eighths,  tenths,  for 
nearly  all  business  calculations  are  limited  to  these. 
Very  many  exercises  should  be  furnished  by  the  teacher, 
and  these  mav  either  be  orii^inal  or  be  selected  from 
other  textbooks  than  that  in  use. 

Multiplication  of  Fractions. — Multiplication  of  Frac- 
tious properly  includes  three  cases: 

1.  2h  31ulfiply  a  Fraction  by  an  Integer. — This  may 
be  taught  in  two  ways:  first,  by  multiplying  the  nume- 
rator, and  then  reducing  the  fractions,  as  3  X  f  =  -g^-  =  2 ; 
or,  second,  by  dividing  the  denominator,  as  3  X  f  =  f  =  2. 
Either  plan  is  correct;  the  first  is  the  easier,  and  there- 
fore the  better  to  begin  with,  particularly  in  connection 
with  concrete  numbers.  It  is  a  plan  also  by  which  all 
problems  can  be  solved,  while  the  second  plan  requires 
that  there  be  a  common  factor  in  the  multiplier  and  the 
denominator. 

2.  To  Multiply  an  Integer  by  a  Fraction. — The  plan 
of  teaching  this  case  need  not  difler  from  that  of  teach- 
ing  the  preceding.  The  mechanical  process  in  finding 
G  X  I,  or  taking  f  of  6,  does  not  differ;  the  result  is  the 
same  whichever  number  is  placed  first.  Practical  prob- 
lems may  precede  the  abstract  process  for  the  purpose  of 
awaking  interest.  The  following  will  serve  to  illustrate: 
"A  boy  had  25  cents,  and  lost  I-  of  it;  how  much  did 


296  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

he  lose?"  The  solution  of  abstract  problems  should 
follow,  as  "How  much  is  i  of  15?"  etc.;  and  follow- 
ing  these  should  come  problems  resulting  in  mixed 
numbers,  as  "How  much  is  -I  of  7?" 

3.  To  MuHiphj  a  Fraction  by  a  Fraction. — This  pro- 
cess is  substantially  the  same  as  that  of  reducing  a 
compound  fraction  to  a  simple  one.  The  pupil  may, 
however,  be  taught  here  to  utilize  the  ])rinciple  of  can- 
cellation more  fully  than  in  dealing  with  compound 
fractions.  The  pupils  should  have  frequent  exercises 
also  in  reading-problems,  such  as  follows:  "  What  cost 
1^  dozen  of  eggs,  at  12|-  cents  a  dozen?"  These  will 
give  him  practice  in  analyzing  the  process  of  solution. 

Division  of  Fractions. — Division  of  Fractions  gives 
rise  to  four  cases : 

1.  To  Divide  a  Fraction  by  an  Integer. — The  first 
problems  here  should  be  such  as  contain  numerators 
Avhich  are  divisible  by  the  given  number,  such  as  the 
following:  "If  3  caj)S  cost  y^^  of  a  dollar,  how  much 
will  1  cap  cost?"  The  analytic  solution  of  these  will 
lead  the  pupil  gradually  to  see  the  mechanical  process 
of  dividing  the  numerator  by  the  given  number.  After 
this  form  of  solution  has  beoo  learned  the  problems  may 
be  made  a  little  more  difficult,  and  their  character  may 
he  made  to  change,  so  as  to  multiply  the  denominator 
instead  of  dividing  the  numerator.  The  following  prob- 
lem will  serve  to  illustrate:  "If  3  boys  earn  |^  of  a 
dollar,  how  much  will  1  boy  earn  at  the  same  rate?" 
The  solution  may  be  given  as  follows  :  "  If  3  boys  earn 
|-  of  a  dollar,  1  boy  will  earn  at  the  same  rate  |^  of  f  of 
a  dollar,  or  ^  of  a  dollar." 


AUITIIMETIC. 


297 


The  pupil  may  be  tauglit  that  either  mnltiiilyiiig  the 
denominator  or  dividing  the  miuTrator  is  eorrcet,  and 
he  may  be  permitted  to  give  cither  solution  as  the  one 
or  the  other  may  be  the  easier  for  iiim. 

2.  To  Divide  an  Integer  by  a  Fraction. — In  teaching 
this  case  the  best  plan  is  to  begin  by  reducing  both  . 
integer  and  fraction  to  fractions  liaving  a  common  de- 
nominator, as  in  tlie  following  solution  :  "  If  1  turkey 
cost  f  of  a  dollar,  for  3  dollars,  or  ^  dollars,  as  many 
turkeys  may  be  bought  as  |  is  contained  times  in  ^^-,  or 
4  turkeys."  If  this  is  not  entirely  clear  to  the  pupil, 
let  it  be  illustrated  with  balls  on  the  numeral  frame, 
calling  four  balls  a  group,  and  each  ball  one-fourth  of  a 
group ;  or  it  may  also  be  illustrated  with  grains  of  corn 
or  other  objects. 

In  the  written  process  the  inversion  of  the  divisor 
may  be  illustrated  as  the  pupil  proceeds  to  explain  or 
solve  orally.  Thus,  in  the  question,  "How  often  is  | 
contained  in  4?"  the  solution  and  the  written  process 
would  run  as  follows:  "1  is  contained  in  4,  4  times; 
1  is  contained  3  times  as  often  as  1,  or  3  X  4  times; 
and  I  is  contained  only  |-  as  often  as  \,  or  ^  of  3  X  4 
times,  which  is  -f  of  4  times,  or  f  X  4." 

The  teacher  should  show  the  class  that  this  is  the  same 
as  inverting  the  divisor  and  multiplying.  This  method 
of  solving  questions  in  Division  of  Fractions  greatly  sim- 
plifies the  process,  and  in  practice  it  is  all  that  is  neces- 
sary. Of  course  the  i)upils  should  have  a  sufficient 
nuraoer  of  exercises  to  lead  them  to  see  clearly  the 
reason  for  inverting  the  divisor,  though  this  is  not 
necessary  in  their  first  study  of  fractions. 

3.   To  Divide  a  Fraction  by  a  Fraction. — The  easiest 


298  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

plan  to  teach  tliis  process  is  first  to  require  pu[)ils  to  re-- 
duce  both  fractions  to  a  common  denominator,  and  then 
simply  divide  the  numerators.  Easy  questions  should 
be  given  at  first,  and  these  should  be  continued  until 
th(!  pupils  can  perform  the  solution  readily  by  the  oral 
method.  The  questions  may  then  be  made  more  difficult 
gradually,  and  finally,  when  the  written  solution  is  pre- 
ferred, the  pupil  may  be  permitted  to  solve  the  problems 
by  inverting  the  divisor  and  j)roceeding  as  in  the  pre- 
ceding case. 

4.  The  Reduction  of  Complex  Fractions. — This  may  be 
regarded  as  one  of  the  forms  of  division  of  fractions.  The 
number  or  fraction  in  the  numerator  may  be  regarded  as 
the  dividend,  and  the  number  or  fraction  in  the  denom- 
inator may  be  regarded  as  the  divisor.  All  fractions 
mav  be  regarded  as  indicated  divisions. 


-o 


Decimal  Fractions. 

Pupils  should  be  taught  that  Decimal  Fractions  do 
not  diifer  from  Common  Fractions  whose  denominator 
is  some  power  of  10,  except  that  for  the  sake  of  con- 
venience they  are  written  without  the  denominator  ex- 
pressed, as  it  is  in  common  fractions.  For  instance, 
seven-tenths  ov  fifteen-thousandths  may  be  expressed  either 

^^  T¥'  iooo>  ^^  ^^  •'^j  .015. 

The  distinction  between  Decimal  Fractions  and  Deci- 
mals should  be  taught. 

Pupils  should  have  plenty  of  exercises  in  both  read- 
ino;  and  writino;  decimals. 

Pupils  should  be  taught  the  principles  governing  the 
writing  of  decimals,  showing  the  effect  of  removing  the 
decimal -point  either  to  the  right  or  to  the  left;  also,  the 


ARITHMETIC.  299 

effect  of  placing  a  cipher  either  to  the  right  or  to  the 
left  of  the  decimal,  or  removing  one  from  either  place. 

No  difficulties  arise  in  either  J cW/'/'/on  or  Subtraction  of 
Decimals;  and  the  only  important  thing  to  keep  in  mind 
i.s  that  the  decimal-points  in  either  process  shall  be  placed 
in  the  same  perpendicular  column. 

In  Multiplication  and  Division  of  Decimals  it  is  neces- 
sarv  to  teach  carefully  the  rule  for  pointing  off  the  result 
in  either  process.  It  is  necessary  to  teach  also  that  when 
the  number  of  figures  in  the  product  is  less  than  the 
number  of  decimal  places  in  the  two  factors,  as  many 
ciphers  must  be  prefixed  to  the  resurt  as  may  be  ne- 
cessary to  make  the  number  of  decimal  places  in  the 
])roduct  equal  the  number  in  both  factors.  Teach  also 
that  if  the  number  of  decimal  places  in  the  divisor 
exceed  the  number  in  the  dividend,  we  must  first  annex 
enough  ciphers  to  the  dividend  to  make  the  number  of 
places  equal  to  the  number  in  the  divisor.  Should  the 
pupils  fail  to  understand  the  reasons  for  these  principles, 
they  may  be  explained  readily  by  changing  the  decimals 
to  common  fractions. 

Denominate   Numbers. 

Ko  department  of  arithmetic  can  be  made  more  inter- 
esting than  Denominate  Numbers,  if  properly  taught. 
Care  must  be  taken,  however,  in  the  very  beginning 
that  the  subject  be  made  practical. 

Measurements. — Let  the  first  lessons  particularly  be  of 
such  a  nature  that  the  pupil  may  see  the  practical  ai)i)li- 
cation  of  what  he  studies.  If  money  be  the  first  topic 
discussed,  but  little  difficulty  need  be  experienced  in 
securing  sufficient  coins  with  which  to  illustrate  the  com- 


300  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

parative  values.  In  discussing  weight,  if  it  be  impossible 
to  have  a  set  of  weights  for  the  school,  it  may  at  least  be 
possible  to  borrow  a  pair  of  scales  and  a  set  of  weights 
for  a  day  or  two,  until  pupils  see  the  practical  value  of 
the  table.  When  discussing  linear  measure  use  a  rule 
and  a  yardstick,  and  let  the  pupils  make  actual  measure- 
ments for  themselves.  It  will  be  found  interesting  to  have 
them  compare  and  judge  of  measurements  sometimes  be- 
fore applying  the  actual  test  to  determine  accurately. 

Do  not  let  pupils  rest  satisfied  with  committing  the 
tables,  rules,  and  definitions  to  memory.  These  are  im- 
portant, but  it  is-more  important  that  tlie  learner  should 
understand  their  application.  AVhen  pupils  study  ad- 
vanced arithmetic  let  them  read  something  on  the  his- 
torv  of  the  various  rules  used  in  the  different  tables,  also 
v.ith  reference  to  the  origin  of  the  various  units,  as  the 
yard,  etc. 

Longitude  and  Time. 

In  order  to  teach  Longitude  and  Time  properly  it  is 
necessary  that  the  pupils  should  first  be  taught  what 
longitude  is,  and  its  relation  to  time.  When  the  pupil 
once  learns  the  fact  that  any  point  on  the  earth's  surface 
passes  through  the  circumference  of  a  circle,  or  3G0°,  in 
a  day  of  twenty-four  hours,  he  will  readily  see  that  it 
passes  through  ^  of  360°,  or  15°,  in  an  hour  of  time. 
He  sees  also  that  there  is  a  difference  of  one  hour  in 
time  for  every  15°  of  longitude,  and  from  this  he  can, 
without  help,  readily  construct  the  table  of  Longitude 
and  Time.  If  the  pupil  is  able  to  construct  the  table, 
he  will  readily  understand  the  conditions  of  all  ordinary 
problems  in  this  topic;  and  all  that  is  further  necessary 
is  that  the  teacher  should  give  numerous  illustrations  and 


ARITHMETIC.  301 

numerous  practical  problems  both  for  oral  and  for  written 
solution. 

Ratio  and  Proportion. 

Nj  difficulties  present  themselves  in  the  teaching  of 
either  Ratio  or  Proportion,  except  in  what  is  known  as 
Compound  Proportion.  All  problems  in  compound  pro- 
portion may  be  solved  by  analysis,  and  it  would  probal)ly 
be  best  for  classes  to  solve  them  in  this  way  in  studying 
the  subject  for  the  first  time. 

In  presenting  Compound  Proportion  much  the  easiest 
-wav  of  teaching  it  is  to  combine  analysis  with  the  proper 
statement.  The  simplest  method  of  arriving  at  the  proper 
statement  is  as  follows: 

1.  Flaee  for  the  tJiird  term  that  number  which  is  of  the 
same  kind  as  the  answer. 

2,  Arrange  the  couplets  as  in  Simple  Proportion,  making 
all  divisions  antecedmts,  and  all  multipliers  consequents,  in 
these  couplets. 

The  following  solution  and  analysis  will  illustrate 
more  fully  : 

Problem. — If  it  cost  a  family  of  5  persons  $135  for 
6  weeks'  board,  how  much  would  it  cost  a  fimiily  of  7 
persons  at  the  same  rate  for  3  weeks'  board? 

6  persons       7  persons  A>iaf>/sis.--The  required 

:  : :  $135   :   x.     answer  is  dollars ;   hence 

G  weeks  3  weeks  ^^.^  ^^^^^  for  the  third  term 

$135.  Since  the  means  are  known,  aud  but  one  of  the  ex- 
tremes, the  members  of  the  means  are  all  multipliers,  and  the 
members  of  the  extremes  all  divisors.  If  the  board  of  5  persons 
cost  $135,  the  board  of  1  person  at  the  same  rate  would  cost  ^  as 
much;  5  is  therefore  a  divisor,  or  member  of  the  first  term,  and 
the  corresponding  number  of  persons,  7,  is  therefore  a  multi- 
plier, or  member  of  the  second  term.    If  the  board  of  7  persons 


302  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

for  6  weeks  cost  a  certain  sum,  for  1  week  it  cost  |  as  mucli ;  6 
is  therefore  a  divisor,  or  member  of  the  first  term,  and  the  cor- 
responding number  of  weeks,  3,  is  a  multiplier,  or  member  of 
the  second  term. 

Taking  the  product  of  the  means  and  dividing  by  the  given 
extreme,  we  have  for  the  otiier  extreme  $94.50,  the  correct  result. 

Percentage. 

Percentage  is  the  uame  applied  to  computations  in 
which  100  is  the  unit  of  measure. 

Pupils  should  be  taught  as  soon  as  thev  begin  tlie 
study  of  Percentage  that  any  per  cent,  of  anything 
means  so  many  hundredths  of  it;  that  is,  tliat  1  per 
cent,  is  y^-g-,  and  that  7  per  cent,  is  yiir*  ^"<1  so  on. 

They  should  be  taught  also  that  per  cent,  may  be 
expressed  in  several  Avays,  as  follows; 

1.  By  a  decimal ;  as,  .17  ; 

2.  By  a  common  fraction;  as,  yqis', 

3.  By  the  term  per  cent)  as,  17  jier  cent.; 

4.  By  the  symbol ;  as,  17%. 

Care  should  be  taken  in  teaching  percentage  to  teach 
the  solutions  of  the  three  general  problems  : 

1.  To  find  any  per  cent,  of  a  given  number  ; 

2.  To  find  what  per  cent,  one  number  is  of  another  ; 

3.  To  find  a  number  when  some  per  cent,  is  given. 

Let  the  pupil  master  these  points  thoroughly,  and  he 
will  have  little  trouble  in  making  an  a])plicatiou  of 
percentage. 

The  problems  in  Loss  and  Gain  will  probably  prove 
the  most  vexatious,  but  let  the  pupil  keep  in  his  mind 
constantly  the  question,  "Per  cent,  of  what?"  and 
aj^ply  it  to  every  question  not  wholly  clear  to  him,  and 
most  of  the  difficulty  will  vanish. 


AEITIIMETIC.  303 

In  Partial  Fai/ments  sliow  the  puj)!!  that  each  problem 
for  solution  is  simply  a  series  of  problems  in  simple 
interest,  and  that  if  each  of  these  be  solved  correctly  the 
general  problem  M'ill  give  but  little  trouble. 

In  Stocks,  etc.  teach  that  dividends,  assessments,  and 
commissions  are  all  calculated  on  the  par  value. 

In  Bank  Discount  show  that  this  is  the  same  as  sim- 
ple interest  for  three  days  more  than  is  specified  in 
the  note;  also,  that  most  banks  add  four  days  instead 
of  tliree. 

General  Suggestions  on  Teaching  Arithmetic 

1.  In  teaching  arithmetic  keep  in  mind  the  fact  that 
many  pupils  leave  school  before  completing  any  textbook 
on  that  study.  Let  these  study  mostly  that  which  will 
be  of  practical  value  to  them  in  after-life. 

2.  Illustrate  all  primary  operations  by  means  of 
objects  as  far  as  possible.  The  idea  of  ten  I's,  or  a  ten, 
can  be  taught  best  by  putting  ten  objects  together  and 
calling  the  collection  a  ten.  Objects  are  much  superior 
to  pictures  as  a  means  of  illustration. 

3.  Use  the  numeral  frame  freely  at  first,  even  if  you 
must  purchase  one  for  yourself.  It  is  a  most  useful 
piece  of  school-apparatus. 

4.  Give  pupils  copious  exercises  in  counting  both 
forward  and  backward,  not  only  by  i's,  but  also  by 
combinations  of  ^'s,  3's,  and  so  on  up  to  lO's,  or  even 
i^'s.  This  will  assist  them  greatly  in  future  rapid 
calculation. 

5.  Give  special  attention  to  the  addition  of  columns — 
first  by  single  figures,  then  by  combinations.  Practice 
in  addition  enters  more  largely  into  business-life  than 


304  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

probably    any   other   process  of  arithmetic.     Accuracy 
here  is  a  prime  necessity. 

6.  Add  a  large  number  of  practical  problems  to  the 
textbook  exercises  given  under  each  topic. 

7.  Give  thorough  drill  on  the  fundamental  rules  ;  all 
others  are  based  on  these. 

8.  Require  pupils  to  originate  problems  embracing  the 
principles  they  have  studied;  this  will  not  only  give 
them  practice,  but.it  will  also  show  that  they  have 
thought  for  themselves  and  not  merely  memorized  the 
rules  and  "  worked  for  the  answer." 

9.  Give  your  ])upils  combination  problems — that  is, 
problems  which  combine  the  operations  of  several  rules 
in  their  solution  ;  these  will  do  much  to  evolve  thought 
on  the  part  of  the  pupil.  Since  the  pupil  cannot  solve 
these  problems  by  any  one  rule,  he  is  compelled  to 
"think  out"  his  own   method  of  solution. 

10.  Select  problems  frequently  from  tlie  actual  busi- 
ness-operations of  life,  and  encourage  the  pupils  to 
think  for  themselves  and  give  original  solutions  for 
these. 

11.  See  that  the  work  in  written  arithmetic,  whether 
on  tlie  slate  or  on  the  blackboard,  is  neat  and  put  in 
proper  order;  also,  that  pupils  give  all  their  solutions, 
analyses,  and  explanations,  Avhether  oral  or  written,  in 
grammatical  language. 

12.  Do  not  solve  problems  for  your  pupils  if  they  are 
able  to  help  themselves.  If  help  is  needed,  let  it  be 
given  indirectly  in  the  shajie  of  hints  and  suggestions, 
or  by  pointing  out  the  mistake  for  the  pupil  and  allow- 
ing him  to  make  his  owu  correction.  Do  not,  however, 
waste  time  by  jx^rraitting  pupils  to  struggle  for  days  in 


ARITHMETIC.  305 

their  efforts  to  solve  a  problem  which  is  beyond  their 
capacity. 

13.  Teach  oral  and  written  arithmetic  together,  letting 
the  pupils  solve  the  easier  problems  and  those  which 
lead  to  the  principles  to  be  established  by  the  oral  pro- 
cess, and  the  more  difficult  and  complicated  problems  by 
the  written  process. 

14.  Require  frequent  mental  solutions,  allowing  pupils 
a  specified  time  to  solve  a  given  problem  silently,  and  at 
the  end  of  the  allotted  time  either  announce  the  result 
at  a  given  signal  from  the  teacher  or  write  it  on  their 
slates. 

15.  As  a  means  of  giving  work  to  all,  and  also  of 
securing  variety,  permit  part  of  the  class  to  solve  prob- 
lems orally  wliile  others  write  their  solutions  on  the 
blackboard.  Much  time  may  be  economized  in  this 
way.  The  principles  and  solutions,  being  given  by  both 
methods  in  the  same  recitation,  will  be  more  fully  com- 
prehended and  more  definitely  and  clearly  understood. 

18.  Permit  pupils  to  derive  and  formulate  their  own 
rules  whenever  possible;  this  will  give  them  valuable 
training  in  both  language-culture  and  reasoning. 

17.  Encourage  original  solutions  on  the  part  of  your 
pupils.  Many  problems  admit  of  several  forms  of  solu- 
tion. If  a  pupil  can  give  a  solution  of  his  own,  and  it 
be  accepted  by  the  teacher  as  correct,  it  will  greatly  en- 
courao-e  the  learner  to  think  for  himself. 

18.  JNIake  haste  slowly.  Let  pupils  understand  as 
thoroughly  as  possible  each  jn-inciple  and  each  process 
before  they  attempt  to  master  the  next  in  order. 

19.  Do  not  make  the  mistake  of  supposing  that  the 
pupil  ought  to  be  able  to  solve  every  problem  tl;e  first 

2'i 


306  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

time  be  studies  the  arithmetic.  See  that  he  knows  liow 
to  perform  tlie  mechanical  processes  ami  understands  as 
far  as  possible  the  princijiles.  Reserve  the  puzzles  for 
later  work;  the  pupil  will  not  lose  much  if  he  never 
solves  them. 

20.  Do  not  make  a  hobby  of  either  oral  or  -svrittcn 
arithmetic;  both  are  important,  and  each  deserves  its 
due  share  of  attention. 

21.  Be  careful  not  to  permit  your  pupils  to  fall  into 
the  habit  of  solving  problems  by  rule.  This  sort  of 
study  is  valueless,  and  should  not  be  permitted.  Pupils 
should  be  led  to  derive  rules  from  solutions,  rather  than 
ai)ply  rules  to  solutions. 

22.  Require  puj)ils  to  give  explanations  of  their 
written  work.  It  is  a  dangerous  practice  to  permit 
pupils  to  place  solutions  on  the  blackboard  without  ex- 
plaining orally  the  process  of  solution.  Pupils  soon  fall 
into  the  habit  of  copying  written  work,  either  done  at 
their  seats  preparatory  to  recitation  or  done  at  home  by 
persons  not  members  of  the  class. 

23.  Require  those  not  engaged  in  other  work  to  watch 
the  exj)lanation  of  each  problem  carefully,  and  then 
make  ])roper  criticisms  when  the  explanation  has  been 
concluded. 

24.  Problems  should  be  so  arranged  that  no  special 
form  of  solution  may  be  made  to  apply  to  all  of  tlu m. 

25.  Let  beginners  give  s})ecial  attention  to  learning 
the  mechanical  process  of  solution  first.  Solve  a  ques- 
tion for  them  on  th.e  blackboard,  then  another,  and  so 
on,  having  them  watch  you  closely  until  they  are  able 
to  perform  the  process  for  themselves. 

26.  The  learning  of  the  multiplication  table,  together 


ARITHMETIC.  307 

with  the  tables  of  tlie  weights  and  measures,  ho\vever 
we  may  introduce  the  subject  by  object-lessons,  is  a  piece 
of  practice  for  the  memory,  and  were  it  even  desirable 
tliere  is  no  way  of  escaping  the  hard  work. 

27.  Give  pupils  an  opportunity  to  make  actual  appli- 
cation of  measurements.  In  the  absence  of  a  yardstick 
let  them  mark  a  lath  into  feet  and  inclies,  and  by  means 
of  this  determine  the  height  and  lengtii  of  desks, 
benches,  the  blackboard,  the  doors,  etc.  If  no  set  of 
weights  can  be  secured,  let  paper  or  muslin  bags  be  filled 
with  sand  or  corn,  representing  the  ounce,  the  pound,  the 
quarter-pound,  etc. 

28.  Do  not  try  to  have  pupils  understand  demon- 
strations which  are  beyond  their  comprehension.  Post- 
pone the  more  difficult  parts  of  arithmetic  until  the 
reasoning  powers  of  your  pupils  are  more  fully  de- 
veloped. 

29.  See  that  pupils  have  specially  thorough  drills  on 
the  four  fundamental  rules,  fractions,  and  percentage. 
These  enter  extensively  into  the  practical  business-mat- 
ters of  life,  and  need  most  attention. 

30.  In  general,  omit  all  complicated  problems  and 
improbable  examples  until  the  pupil  has  nothing  else 
to  learn.  Some  of  these  may  give  valuable  mental 
training,  but  many  of  them  take  up  valuable  time  that 
might  be  spent  more  profitably  in  other  work. 

31.  If  vou  have  reason  to  believe  that  pupils  have  had 
unnecessary  help  in  the  preparation  of  their  arithmetic- 
lessons,  give  them  problems  taken  from  other  textbooks 
or  some  constructed  by  yourself,  so  as  to  involve  the 
principles  of  the  lesson. 

32.  Give  full  credit  for  industry  and  originality  in 


808  METHODS  OF  TEACHIXO. 

the  solutlous.     Some  think  more  rapidly  than  other?  in 
mathematics,  because  more  talented  in  that  direction. 

33.  Use  the  blackboard  to  explain  to  pupils.  Often 
many  in  the  class  have  the  same  difficulty,  and  you  thus 
economize  time  by  explaining  the  same  question  to  all. 

34.  Bring  yourself  down  to  the  level  of  your  pupils 
in  making  your  explanations.  Often  the  best  mathe- 
maticians fail  to  teach  beginners  well,  because  what  to 
them  seems  entirely  clear  and  needs  no  explanation  is 
dark  and  difficult  to  the  pupil.  Do  not  take  for 
granted  that  pupils  understand;  see  that  they  under- 
stand. 

35.  When  you  make  an  explanation  for  the  pupil  let 
liim  repeat  it  to  you  to  show  that  he  understands  it.  It 
is  often  the  case  that  when  a  pupil  is  asked  if  he  under- 
stands he  replies  "Yes  "when  he  should  have  said  "Xo.'' 
He  docs  this  either  because  he  does  not  like  to  put  the 
teacher  to  further  trouble,  or  because  he  dislikes  to  seem 
stupid. 

3G.  Let  pupils  prepare  business-problems  out  of  class, 
and  place  them  in  the  hands  of  the  teacher  to  be  referred 
to  other  pupils  fur  solution  and  explanation. 

37.  In  your  reviews  give  short  problems  that  involve 
principles.  This  will  save  time,  and  be  quite  as  valuable 
a  test  of  the  learner's  accuracy  as  would  more  compli- 
cated problems  requiring  a  longer  solution. 

38.  Bear  in  mind  that  for  many  pupils  arithmetic 
is  a  verv  difficult  studv,  and  that  manv  who  seem  ab- 
solutely  stupid  iu  this  branch  may  be  very  brilliant  in 
others. 

39.  Do  not  permit  the  study  of  arithmetic  to  monop- 
olize more  than  its  due  share  of  time  and  attention.   Other 


AKITII.METIC.  309 

Btiulics  are  quite  as  important,  both  for  tlieir  disciplinary 
value  and  for  their  practical  worth  in  after  life. 

40.  In  the  solution  of  problems,  particularly  in  oral 
arithmetic,  be  careful  not  to  require  unnecessary  verb- 
iage. It  may  be  logical  to  state  the  problem  first,  then 
solve  it,  and  lastly  give  the  conclusion,  with  a  great 
flourish  of  "  Tlierefore,"  etc.,  but  much  time  might  be 
saved  Avhen  this  form  is  once  learned  by  giving  the 
solution  only. 

41.  In  the  study  of  different  topics  see  that  the  sub- 
ject of  arithmetic  is  made  as  practical  as  possible.  The 
objects  in  teaching  arithmetic  are  both  mental  discipline 
and  the  practical  knowledge  which  it  affords  for  busi- 
ness-life. 

42.  See  that  those  who  study  the  applications  are  able 
to  write  the  usual  business-forms,  inchiding  checks,  re- 
ceipts, drafts,  notes  of  all  kinds,  etc. 

43.  Procure  from  bankers  or  business-men  blank  forms 
of  business-papers,  such  as  checks,  drafts,  and  notes,  and 
place  these  in  the  hands  of  your  pupils  for  tlieir  in- 
spection. 

44.  Let  pupils  reason  for  themselves,  and  not  only 
state  what  they  do,  but  also  why  they  do  it.  Let  them 
thus  prove  that  they  understand  the  reason  for  every 
operation  they   perform  and  every  step  of  the  jn-occss. 

45.  Show  that  many  abbreviated  processes  and  also 
methods  of  doing  work,  as  beginning  at  the  right  tc 
add,  are  simply  matters  of  convenience. 

46.  If  you  apprehend  that  pupils  will  have  any  seri- 
ous difficulty  in  studying  a  topic,  give  them  judicious 
help  by  showing  them  in  advance  how  they  may  study 
the  subject  to  the  best  advantage. 


CHAPTER   IIT. 
Algebra. 

The  methods  of  teaching  Alge])ra  do  not,  in  general, 
differ  from  those  of  teaching  Arithmetic,  and  the  discus- 
sion of  the  topic  need  not,  therefore,  be  extended  to  any 
great  length.  It  is  the  purpose  here  to  dwell  briefly  only 
on  those  points  which  present  more  or  less  difficulty  in  the 
method  of  presentation. 

By  many  writers  Algebra  has  been  considered  and 
called  General  Arithmetic.  It  deals  largely  with  sym- 
bols where  arithmetic  employs  words,  but  the  principles 
of  the  two  sciences  do  not  differ,  except  that  those  of 
algebra  are  general  in  their  application  and  more  ex- 
tended than  are  those  of  arithmetic. 

Algebra  may  be  taught  profitably  before  the  pupil  has 
thoroughly  mastered  the  subject  of  arithmetic.  Indeed, 
it  will  be  found  that  in  the  higher  departments  of  arith- 
metic each  science  may  be  made  to  assist  the  other,  and 
often  a  principle  in  arithmetic  may  be  aptly  stated  and 
explained  by  the  assistance  of  algebraic  characters. 

S^^mbols. — The  pupil  must  learn  the  use  of  algebraic 
symbols  at  an  early  stage.  This  can  be  taught  best 
in  connection  with  numbers,  and  then  the  change  be 
made  to  letters.  Thus  the  signs  +,  — ,  X,  -^,  having 
the  same  force  in  algebra  as  in  arithmetic,  may  be  read- 
ily applied.    Others,  as  used  in  the  following  expressions, 

310 


.    ALGEBRA.  311 

-\/  25  =  5,  5-  =  25,  G  >  4,  4  <  G,  may  be  learned  as  neces- 
eity  requires;  aud  when  once  learned  in  connection  with 
numbers,  tlie  transition  to  letters  Avill  be  readily  under- 
stood. The  pupils  will,  for  instance,  readily  compre- 
hend that  rt  +  a  =  2a,  or  that  4  a  —  2a  =  2a,  and  so  on. 

Equatious. — The  equation  in  algebra  is  a  matter  of 
jniine  importance.  It  is  therefore  necessary  that  the 
pupil  be  taught  as  early  as  possible  its  use,  and  how 
to  express  quantities  between  M-liich  the  equality  sign 
is  placed. 

First  Steps. — The  first  problems  in  algebra  may  be 
made  to  consist  of  such  as  can  be  solved  by  arithmetic. 
In  making  the  transition  from  one  science  to  the  other 
the  pupil  will  readily  see  how  much  more  simple  is  the 
algebraic  than  the  arithmetical  solution.  Thus,  in  the 
problem,  "3  times  John's  age  plus  4  times  his  age 
equals  56  years:  what  is  his  age?"  the  arithmetical 
solution  would  be  as  follows:  "3  times  John's  age  plus 
4  times  his  age,  or  7  times  his  age,  equals  56  years;  hence 
his  age  is  ^  of  56  years,  or  8  years." 

By  algebra  the  solution  becomes  much  more  simple. 
Letting  X  represent  John's  age,  we  have 

Sx  +  4x  =  5G  ; 
^x=  Ob; 

Oral  Solutions. — Problems  may  be  given  wliich  the 
pupils  should  be  required  to  solve  orally.  Indeed,  in 
this  respect  the  method  of  teaching  need  not  differ 
from  that  of  arithmetic.  The  oral  ])roccss  of  solution 
may  precede  the  written  in  illustrating  the  principle, 
and,  as  the  problems  become  more  difficult,  the  written 


312  -METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

method  of  solution  maybe  substituted  for  the  oral.  Thii 
plan  of  solving  algebraic  questions  orally,  even  where  the 
textbook  gives  them  for  Mritten  solution,  may  be  followed 
to  great  advantage. 

Mental  Solutions. — The  teacher  will  often  be  able  to 
create  great  interest  by  requiring  strictly  mental  solu- 
tions, in  which  the  pupil  performs  the  entire  operation 
mentally  and  then  announces  simply  the  result.  This 
class  of  solutions  should  be  required  even  in  the  intro- 
ductory work  of  algebra. 

Two  plans  may  be  nsed  in  conducting  a  recitation. 
First,  the  pupils  may  sit  with  book's  open,  and  as  they 
read  over  each  problem  they  may  announce  the  result, 
or  the  teacher  may  write  a  series  of  problems  on  the 
blackboard,  and  the  pupils  may,  when  called  upon, 
announce  the  result.  This  plan  is,  however,  open  to 
serious  objection,  for  the  reason  that  pupils,  in  preparing 
the  lesson  at  the  seats,  are  sometimes  apt  to  place  the 
answer  after  each  problem,  and  when  they  come  to  class 
simply  announce  these  answers  as  they  have  them  written 
down.  The  objection  may  be  met  by  having  these 
mental  exercises  as  a  preliminary  drill  before  the  pupil 
has  had  an  opportunity  to  prepare  them. 

The  second  plan  is  that  usually  pursued  in  recitations 
in  oral  arithmetic.  The  teacher  may  read  the  problem 
from  the  book,  and  require  all  the  class  to  give  close 
attention.  After  sufficient  time  has  elapsed,  he  may  ask 
those  who  have  solved  the  problem  to  raise  their  hands, 
and  then  call  upon  some  one  to  announce  the  result. 
This  plan  holds  the  attention  of  the  sntire  class,  and  is 
productive  of  the  best  results. 

Aritlmietical  Problems. — The  transition  from  arithmetic 


ALGEBRA.  313 

to  algebra  may  be  made  quite  easy  by  having  puj/ils  first 
solve  suitable  problems  by  the  arithmetical  process,  and 
then,  substituting  symbols  for  words,  employ  substantially 
the  same  process  algebraically.  Many  of  the  simpler  ex- 
ercises given  for  oral  recitation  in  arithmetic  may  be  used 
in  this  way.  These  may  be  placed  as  an  introduction  to 
algebra,  and  pupils  may  thus  be  led  to  see  more  readily 
the  connection  between  the  two  subjects;  and  their  in- 
terest will  be  aroused  at  once. 

Algebraic  Expression. — Before  dealing  Avith  the  special 
rules  of  algebra,  pupils  must  be  taught  to  exj)ress  them- 
selves algebraically.  Thus,  they  should  be  taught  that 
X  and  X,  or  x  -f  a?,  may  be  written  1x  ;  also  that  2  times 
X  is  the  same  as  2.^.  They  may  be  taught  also  that  a 
times  X,  aY.x,  may  be  written  simply  ax,  and  that  xY^x 
may  be  written  a;^,  or  a  X  «  X  «  may  be  written  d^ ;  in 
which  expressions  the  small  figure  is  called  an  exponent, 
and  shoNvs  how  many  times  the  letter  is  taken  as  a 
factor. 

Of  course,  when  these  points  are  explained  to  the 
pupil  he  should  have  abundant  exercise  in  changing 
one  form  of  expression  to  another ;  and  these  exercises 
should  continue  until  the  child  writes  the  various  ex- 
pressions readily  and  correctly. 

At  this  point  the  child  may  be  taught  also  to  write 

fractional  expressions ;    as  -  of  re  ==  ^x,  or  -  ;    -  of  .ir  = 

3  3r 

-X,  or  — -,  etc. ;    also  that   any  two  quantities    between 

which  the  equality-mark  (=)  is  placed  constitute  an  equa- 

tion,  as  the  expressions  x—4,  2x  +  3a;=  20,  -  =  -  +  1. 
'  1  >  '24 


314  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

Meet  works  on  algebra  give  the  pupil  a  number  of 
appropriate  examples  on  -which  he  may  have  exercise 
of  the  nature  here  mentioned ;  but  to  these  the  teacher 
should  add  many  more,  so  as  to  prevent  any  such  prep- 
aration of  the  lesson  as  is  not  intelligent,  and  at  the 
same  time  develop  thought  in  the  mind  of  the  learner. 

Numerical  Values. — In  connection  with  the  lessons  in 
algebraic  expression  there  may  be  given  such  exercises 
as  require  the  pupil  to  substitute  values.  Thus,  when 
the  ])ii})il  has  learned  to  Mrite  the  expressions  let  him  be 
required  to  substitute  figures  for  letters.  Questions  like 
the  following  will  furnish  him  valuable  exercise:  "If 
a  =  3,  what  is  the  value  of  a  +  a  -f-  a? "  "If  a  =  3  and 
6.-4,  what  is  the  value  of  the  expression  2a  +  3/>?" 
"If  a=2  and  6  =  3,  what  is  the  value  of  a  +  2a6?" 
These  j)roblems  should  be  graded  in  difficulty,  so  that 
the  ])upil  may  not  become  confused  or  discouraged  in 
the  beginning,  and  labor  ever  after  under  the  delusion 
that  algebra  is  a  very  difficult  study. 

CollectlDg. — In  the  early  part  of  the  work  the  pupil 
should  be  drilled  in  the  process  of  collecting.  Thus,  he 
should  be  taught  that  a  +  a  +  a,  or  3a's,  may  be  better 
expressed  as  3a,  and  that  the  expression  a  +  a  +  6  +  a  + 
6  +  6  +  rt,  which  consists  of  4a's  and  36's,  may  be  written 
better  4a +  36. 

Negative  Quantity. — At  this  point  also  should  be 
taught  the  meaning  and  use  of  the  negative  quantity. 
This  can  be  done  best  by  giving  several  practical  ex- 
amples, similar  to  the  following :  "A  boy  buys  2  oranges 
for  10  cents,  but  when  lie  comes  to  pay  for  them  he  finds 
he  has  but  7  tents  in  his  purse.  Since  he  cannot  take 
10  cents  from  7  cents,  he  pays  7  cents,  and  still  owes  3 


ALGEBRA.  315 

cents.  His  financial  condition  may  be  expressed  by  —  3 
cents." 

Similar  examples  may  be  taken  to  illustrate  to  the 
j)npil  tliat  wlien  we  take  a  larger  number  from  a  small- 
er in  algeljra,  the  result  is  a  negative  quantity,  and  its 
value  is  expressed  by  placing  the  minus-sign  (— )  before 
it. 

At  this  point  he  should  have  ample  exercises  in  col- 
lecting where  both  positive  and  negative  quantities  occur 
in  the  same  example.  Something  similar  to  the  follow- 
ing would  be  useful :  "A  boy  rows  up  stream  12  yards, 
then  drifts  down  15  yards;  he  again  rows  up  20  yards, 
and  drifts  back  12  yards;  how  much  ])rogress  has  he 
made?"  ]Many  similar  questions  should  be  given,  some 
furnishing  positive  results  and  others  negative,  so  that 
the  pu})il  may  gain  a  clear  notion  of  both  positive  and 
negative  quantities.  The  drill  will  be  valuable  also  in 
giving  the  pupil  a  clearer  understanding  of  the  process 
of  addition  when  both  positive  and  negative  quantities 
occur  in  the  same  column. 

Addition. — But  little  difficulty  will  arise  in  addition 
■where  all  the  sitrns  are  either  +  or  — ,  as  it  is  necessarv 
simjily  to  add  the  columns  and  place  before  the  result 
the  same  sign  as  precedes  all  the  quantities  to  be  added. 
When,  however,  the  signs  differ,  it  is  best  to  teach  at 
first  simply  the  mechanical  process,  and  then  the  require- 
ment that  the  positive  and  the  negative  quantities  shall 
be  added  separately,  their  diiference  be  taken,  and  that 
tliis  result  shall  be  prefaced  by  the  sign  which  is  found 
before  the  greater  of  the  two  sums.  After  the  jiupils 
have  once  learned   to  perform   the  process  of  addition 


316  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

readily,  they  should  then  be  taught  by  means  of  simple 
examples  the  reason  for  placing  the  sign. 

It  may  be  well  in  illustrating  this  point  to  take  a 
practical  problem,  something  similar  to  the  following: 
"A  man  earns  on  ^Monday  $10,  on  Tuesday  $3;  on 
Wednesday  he  loses  $12;  on  Thursday  he  earns  §25; 
on  Friday  he  loses  §6 ;  and  on  Saturday  he  loses  §10 
more;  how  much  does  he  save  in  the  week?"  This  can 
be  written  for  the  pupils  in  arithmetical  form  :  §10  +  §3 
—  §12  +  §25  —  §6  —  §10  =  §10,  or  in  algebraic  form, 
substituting  x  for  §,  as  follows: 

lO.u 

ox 

-V2x 

25.C 

-6.C 

-  lO.r 


38.1; -2S.r=  10a; 

Similar  examples  should  be  given  in  which  the  sum 
of  negative  quantities  exceeds  that  of  the  positive.  The 
transition  from  these  concrete  problems  will  be  found 
quite  easy. 


Subtraction. — The  chief  difficulty  in  algebraic  subtrac- 
tion is  to  show  the  child  why  the  sign  of  the  subtrahend 
is  changed.  In  order  to  make  this  clear  to  the  mind  of 
the  learner  it  is  best  to  limit  the  first  questions  to  posi- 
tive quantities  in  both  minuend  and  subtrahend.  The 
learner  will  have  little  difficultv  in  understanding:  that 
the  expressions,  "  4  books  subtracted  from  6  books,"  "  6 
bo(>ks  less  ■!  books,"  and  "  6  books  miims  4  books,"  are 


ALGEBRA.  317 

substantially  the  same.  lu  a  similar  way  he  may  be  led 
to  see  that  4a;  from  Gx,  Qx  less  4x,  and  Qx  —  4a;  are  the 
same.  The  problems  may  now  be  written  iu  a  different 
form;  as, 

From       6  boys,  Gx 

Subtract  4  boys,  4x 

2  boys.  2x 

Suppose  that  the  pupil  has  been  taught  the  process  of 
adtlitiou  thoroughly  where  different  signs  occur,  he  will 
have  little  difiiiulty  in  understanding  that  the  expression 
(Sx  —  2.1;  —  -ix  may  be  written — 

6x 

-2x 


4x 

This  form  shows  him  the  problem  in  subtraction  changed 
to  one  in  addition ;  and  he  has  only  to  perform  the  addition 
iu  order  to  verify  the  result  obtained  by  the  oral  solution 
in  subtraction. 

The  next  point  is  to  show  to  the  learner  that  the  sign 
is  not  necessarily  really  changed,  but  that  we  may  "think 
of  it"  or  "conceive  it"  as  changed,  and  proceed  as  iu 
addition.  It  will  not  be  a  difficult  task,  if  the  pupil 
have  plenty  of  oral  exercises,  to  show  him  that  the  re- 
sult of  thinking  of"  a  minus  sign  as  changed  makes  it 
a  plus  sign,  or  that  a  plus  sign  under  similar  circum- 
stances b2comes  a  minus  sign,  and  that  whichever  num- 
ber is  the  larirer,  the  minuend  or  the  subtrahend,  the 
sign  of  that  number  gives  the  sign  to  the  result. 

The  teacher  should  dwell  on  this  matter  of  changing 
the  sicru  of  the  subtrahend  until  there  can  be  no  pos- 
Bibilitv  of  mistake.      It  is  safe  to  say  that  more  than 


18  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 


one-half  the  errors  in  algebraic  work  result  fixim  mis- 
takes matle  on  this  point. 

Transposition. — It  frequently  occurs  in  the  solution 
of  equations  that  letters  occur  in  both  members  of  the 
equation ;  as, 

6x  +  3  =  o.r  +  5, 
or  Qx-4^2x  +  8. 

In  such  cases  it  is  necessary  that  the  letters  should  all  be 
placed  in  one  member  of  the  equation  and  the  numbers  in 
the  other.  In  the  first  equation  above,  6j;  +  3=  5.r  +  5, 
we  may  get  rid  of  the  3  by  subtracting  3  from  each  side 
of  the  equation,  which  will  then  stand 

Gx  =  5x'  +  5  —  3. 

^Ve  may  also  get  rid  of  the  ox  in  the  second  member  by 

subtracting  5x  from  each  member;  the  ec[uation  would 

then  stand 

Gx  —  o.c  =  5  —  3 ; 

but  this  form  is  the  same  as  if  we  had  changed  the  sign 
of  5.C  and  of  3,  and  removed  each  from  one  member  of 
of  the  equation  to  the  other.  The  pupil  will  readily  see 
that  all  that  is  necessary  in  changing  a  quantity  from  one 
member  of  an  equation  to  the  other  is  to  change  the  sign 
of  the  quantity  as  it  is  removed  from  one  side  of  the 
equality-sign  to  the  other.  This  process  of  changing 
a  quantity  from  one  side  of  an  equation  to  the  other  is 
called  Transposition. 

The  importance  of  transposing  members  of  an  equation 
should  be  explained  to  the  pupil,  and  he  should  then  have 
sufficient  practice  in  transposition  to  make  him  thoroughly 
familiar  with  the  process  and  expert  in  the  o^^eration.  Part 


ALGEBRA.  319 

of  these  exercises  should  be  for  oral  practice  an  1  part  for 
written. 

Forming  Equations. — One  of  the  most  serious  difficul- 
ties with  which  the  student  in  algebra  meets  is  that  of 
forming  equations;  even  many  who  are  able  to  solve 
equations  readily  when  once  constructed  find  no  little 
difficulty  in  constructing  equations  for  themselves  from 
the  reading-problems  with  which  they  meet. 

It  i'?  important  that  the  first  exercises  in  forming 
equations  be  very  simple,  and  that  they  increase  in  dif- 
ficulty very  gradually.  Let  some  of  the  first  exami)le3 
be  similar  to  the  followino;:  "If  Sx  +  2  is  4  more  than  x, 
what  is  the  pro})er  equation?"  "If  2x  —  6  is  2  less  than 
3.r,  what  is  the  proper  equation?"  The  next  series  of 
questions  maybe  somewhat  as  follows:  "If  3  times  a 
nund:)er  +  2  equals  once  the  same  number  +  4,  what  is 
the  equation  and  what  is  the  number?" 

It  will  be  found  profitable,  as  soon  as  reading-prob- 
lems of  any  nature  are  given  for  solution,  for  the  class 
to  proceed  first  to  construct  the  proper  equations.  A 
large  proportion  of  students  find  this  the  first  difficulty 
with  which  they  have  to  contend,  and  it  is  one  which 
sometimes  gives  them  more  or  less  trouble  throughout 
their  whole  study  of  the  science.  It  is  therefore  recom- 
mended that  where  pupils  are  not  able  to  construct  the 
proper  equation,,  the  teacher  lead  them  by  judicious 
questions  to  construct  the  equations  of  a  number  of 
similar  problems  before  they  begin  the  solution  of  any 
in  a  lesson.  It  will  be  found  profitable  also  to  have 
them  sometimes  place  on  their  slates  or  on  the  black- 
board the  ])roper  equations  for  all  the  problems  of  a 
lesson.     This  will  prove  a  valuable  exercise  in  training 


320  METHODS   OF  TEACHES'G. 

the  judgment  and  the  understanding  in  general.  The 
exercises  may  be  varied  by  having  one  pupil  construct 
the  proper  equations  in  a  problem,  and  then  selecting 
gome  one  else  to  solve  the  equations. 

Multiplication. — The  first  difficulty  that  the  pupil  is 
likelv  to  encounter  in  multiplication  is  that  the  product 
of  like  signs  produces  positive  quantities,  or  plus,  while 
the  product  of  unlike  signs  produces  negative  quantities, 
or  minus. 

Multiplying  two  quantities,  each  having  the  plus  sign, 
gives  rise  to  no  difficulty. 

Multiplying  a  negative  quantity  by  a  positive,  as  —  Gx 
multiplied  by  3,  is  readily  explained  by  showing  that 

-6x 
-Gx 
-  Gx 

is  the  same  as  3  X  —  6.r  =  —  1 8x. 

Multiplying  a  positive  quantity  by  a  negative,  as  4x 
multiplied  by  —  3,  may  be  explained  by  showing  that 
4  X  —  3  is  the  same  as  —  3  X  4  =  —  12,  and  this  quantity 
multiplied  by  x  =  —  12.r,  or  4:XX  —  o  =  —  12.r. 

In  a  similar  manner  it  may  be  shown  that  in  the  mul- 
tiplication of  two  negative  quantities,  as  —  7  X  —  3,  the 
minus-sign  before  the  multiplier  7  means  that  7  times 
the  multiplicand  is  to  be  subtracted  from  something.  In 
this  case  7X  — 3  =  — 21.  If  this  be  subtracted,  its 
srgn  must  be  changed;  hence  the  product  of  —  7  and 
-3  is  +21. 

The  pupil,  having  learned  previously  that  the  expo- 


ALGEBRA.  321 

nent  indicates  the  number  of  times  a  letter  or  figure  ia 
used  as  a  factor,  will  have  little  difficulty  in  understand- 
ing operations  similar  to  the  following : 

aXaXaX6XaX«X6  =  a'6l 
a'XaXaXb^Xb  =  a'b\ 
a-  Xa^XbXb^XG=  cv'b'e. 

To  prove  himself  right,  let  him  resolve  given  numbers 
to  factors  ;  as. 

a^  =  aX  aX  a. 

a^b'c  =aXaXbXbXbXbXc. 

Multiplication  of  Polynomials  need  not  be  specially 
exjjlained  here,  as  it  presents  no  difficulties  not  ali'eady 
met  with  in  multiplication  of  monomials. 

Pujiils  should  memorize  the  principle  that  the  product 
of  quantities  having  like  signs  is  plus,  and  the  product 
of  those  having  unlike  signs  is  minus.  It  will  prove 
convenient  to  remember  this  and  have  it  at  command  at 
all  times. 

Division. — In  division  the  chief  thing  is  to  explain  to 
the  pupil  the  division  of  coefficients  first.  This  will 
present  no  serious  difficulty.  Should  he  fail  to  under- 
stand the  subtraction  of  exponents,  as  Qx^  -~  2o?  =  3.r^, 
it  would  be  best  to  factor  the  literal  part  of  the  exprcs- 

sion  thus,  6xxxxx  -^  2xx ;  or  thus,    '  =  uxxx  —  ux\ 

2xx 

when  he  will  readilv  understand  that,  division  beino;  the 

reverse  of  multiplication,  exponents  are  subtracted  where 

in  multiplication  they  are  added. 

He  may  be  taught  also  that  in  division  the  quotient 

21 


322  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

of  quantities  having  like  signs  is  plus  (+),  or  positive, 
while  that  of  quantities  having  unlike  signs  is  minus 
(— )j  or  negative.  This  may  be  illustrated  to  the  pupils 
as  in  the  case  of  multiplication,  or  rather  by  reversing 
the  process,  as  follows : 

Since  a  X  6  =  ah,  ah  ^  b  =  a. 
Since  a  X  —  ^  =  —  ah,  —  ah  -^  a  =  —  h. 
Since  —  a  X  6  =  —  ab,  —  ab  -r-b  =  —  a. 
Since  —  a  X  —  b  —  ab,  ab-. a  =  —  b. 

Fractions. — Fractions  in  algebra  may  be  regarded  as 
indicated  divisions;  they  therefore  present  no  difficul- 
ties except  such  as  are  met  with  in  division,  and  the 
method  of  teaching  needs  but  little  further  discussion 
here. 

Clearing  of  Fractions. — Pupils  should  be  taught  by 

means  of  very  simple  examples,  as  —  +-^  =  5,  to   clear 

equations  of  fractions.  The  transition  from  arith- 
metical numbers  to  algebraic  can  be  made  readily  in 
the  above  example.  Thus,  |-  the  cost  of  a  hat  plus  \ 
of  the  cost  equals  §5.  The  pupil  has  no  difficulty  in 
determining  that  f  of  the  cost  equals  $5,  and  that  the 
total  cost  is  6  dollars. 

Substituting  the  algebraic  form,  we  have — 


XX 

2"^3~ 

5; 

3. 

c  +  2x'  = 

30; 

bx  = 

:30; 

X  — 

.6. 

Factoring. — In  order  to  understand  Factoring,  and  be 
aoie  to  resolve  polynomials  readily  into  factors,  pupils 


ALGEBRA.  323 

must   understaud    tlioroughly   and    have   constantly   at 
command  the  theorems  which  show  the  result  of 

1.  The  square  of  the  sum  of  tioo  quantities; 

2.  The  square  of  the  difference  of  two  quantities  ; 

3.  The  product  of  the  sum  and  difference  of  iico 
quantities. 

The  exercises  in  illustratincr  these  theorems  antl  in 
resolving  the  products  into  their  factors  cannot  well 
be  too  extended.  A  thorouo-h  knowledo-e  of  these 
theorems  will  not  only  save  a  vast  amount  of  work, 
but  it  will  very  greatly  facilitate  the  solution  of  many 
problems,  l)y  enabling  the  student  to  see  at  a  glance 
how  the  work  of  solution  may  be  greatly  simplified. 

The  following  additional  theorems  are  also  important: 

1.  That  the  difference  of  two  quantities  is  an  exact  divisor 
of  the  difference  of  any  like  powers  of  those  quantities  ; 

2.  T]iat  ilie  sum  of  two  quantities  is  an  exact  divisor 
of  the  sum  of  any  like  odd  powers  of  those  quantities. 

Factoring  enters  largely  into  the  work  of  solving 
problems,  and  the  pupil  should  have  frequent  exercises 
not  only  in  applying  the  foregoing  theorems,  but  also  in 
general  factoring  and  in  fractional  division  by  the  fac- 
toring process. 

Elimination. — In  elimination  it  is  best  that  pupils 
should  understand  clearly  the  three  methods  of  elim- 
ination, and  be  required  to  solve  problems  readily  in 
all  of  them,  but  in  their  subsequent  practice  they  should 
be  permitted  to  use  that  method  M'hich  may  prove  most 
convenient  for  them. 

Radicals. — This  to])ic  presents  serious   difficulties   to 


324  ITETHODS   OF    TEACHING. 

most  pupils;  and  it  will  be  found  that  the  cause  of 
the  difficulty  lies  in  the  fact  that  pupils  are  hurried  too 
rapidly  in  the  reduction  of  radicals.  Much  time  should 
be  spent  on  this  part  of  the  subject.  It  should  be  im- 
pi'essed  on  the  mind  of  the  learner  again  and  again  that 
the  quantity  under  the  radical  sign  shall  be  divided  into 
two  factors,  one  of  which  shall  be  a  perfect  powa'  of  the 
degree  indicated  by  the  radical. 

The  teacher  should  begin  with  simple  exercises,  calling 
first  for  square  factors,  then  cubic  factors,  and  so  on,  un- 
til the  pupil  can  readily  divide  numbers  into  factors,  one 
of  which  shall  be  of  the  required  degree.  Expressions 
should  then  be  simplified,  as  i/24  =  |/4  X  G  =  2]/6,  or 
^24  =  p'WxS  =  2{/3.  If  the  textbook  does  not  fur- 
nish a  sufficient  number  of  examples,  the  teacher  should 
select  from  other  textbooks  or  originate  a  large  number 
of  examples,  so  that  pupils  may  understand  the  reduc- 
tion of  radicals  thoroughly.  Having  mastered  this  part 
of  the  subject,  pupils  will  have  little  difficulty  in  the 
application  of  radicals  or  in  solving  equations  contain- 
ing radicals. 

Literal  Equations. — Literal  equations  sometimes  present 
serious  difficulties  to  the  student.  When  such  is  the  case, 
it  is  best  to  have  him  first  solve  several  numerical  ecjua- 
tions,  and  then  follow  with  a  literal  equation  having  the 
same  form.  Of  course,  there  can  be  no  thorough  knowl- 
edire  cf  alirebra  without  the  ability  to  solve  these  literal 
equations  quite  as  readily  as  the  numerical. 

The  Force  of  Signs. — Pupils  should  be  taught  that 
quantities  between  wdiich  a  multiplication  or  a  division 


ALGEBEA.  325 

sign  occurs  are  to  be  taken  together,  that  phis  and  minus 
signs  are  simply  equivalent  to  conjunctions,  and  that  every 
process  stops  and  begins  anew  Avhen  we  reach  either 
a  plus  or  a  minus  sign ;  that  is,  something  is  either 
to  be  added  to  or  subtracted  from  what  has  preceded. 

Thus,  a -f  6  X  ^'  —  c^d  is  a-\-hx  — ,  and  similarly  in 

a 

aritlimetic: 

3  +  ixG  =  6; 

3  +  iof6-6; 
3  +  6^3  =  5. 

The  last  form  becomes  very  simple  the  moment  we  put  it 
in  fractional  form,  as  3  +  |^  =  5. 

Suggestions  on  Teaching  Algebra. 

1.  Do  not  encourage  pupils  to  begin  the  study  of 
algebra  until  they  have  at  least  a  fair  knowledge  of 
arithmetic. 

2.  Give  special  attention  to  such  points  as  seem  to 
give  pupils  most  difficulty. 

3.  Do  not  neglect  oral  and  mental  solutions;  the 
teacher  is  frequently  able  to  detect  the  pupils'  weak- 
ness more  readily  by  these  than  by  the  written  work. 

4.  Simplify  the  processes  as  much  as  possible  for  begin- 
ners, and  do  not  discourage  them  by  attempting  to  teach 
too  many  ways  of  performing  an  algebraic  operation. 

5.  See  that  pupils  thoroughly  understand  the  value  of 
the  minus-sign,  and  the  effect  produced  in  changing  a 
number  from  one  member  of  an  equation  to  the  other. 

6.  Teach  the  various  definitions  as  you  come  to  them ;  do 
not  discourage  the  pupil  by  attempting  to  have  him  learn 
a  long  list  of  definitions  before  he  has  any  use  for  t!iem. 


326  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

7.  See  that  the  pupil  can  apply  not  only  every  prhi- 
ciple  that  he  learns,  but  that  he  can  also  explain  it  so  as 
to  make  it  intelliii-ible  to  others. 

8.  Let  pupils  have  extensive  practice  both  in  forming 
equations  and  in  solving  problems.  The  arithmetic  may 
be  used  with  profit  in  this  way,  and  algebraic  solutions 
be  applied  to  arithmetical  problems. 

9.  Teach  carefully  the  use  of  all  signs,  and  show  that 
what  is  true  in  algebra  with  reference  to  processes  indi- 
cated by  signs  is  true  also  in  arithmetic. 

10.  Encourage  the  timid  and  uncertain  in  algebra  by 
giving  them  easy  problems  embracing  the  principles  to 
be  taught ;  select  these,  if  necessary,  from  other  text- 
books. Have  these  pupils  also  construct  simple  prob- 
lems of  their  own,  to  show  that  they  understand  the 
principles  involved. 

11.  Do  not  worry  your  pupils  with  special  solutions 
or  shortened  methods  until  they  have  mastered  more  or 
less  thoroughly  the  matter  and  the  methods  in  the  text- 
book, unless  you  are  certain  that  your  method  is  more 
simple  and  more  readily  understood  than  that  of  the 
book. 

12.  Begin  the  work  in  algebra  as  far  as  possible  with 
concrete  problems;  these  will  be  understood  most  readily, 
and  they  will  serve  as  an  introduction  to  the  abstract  parts 
of  the  science. 

13.  Show  the  relation  between  algebra  and  arithmetic 
by  making  the  transition  from  the  one  to  the  other.  Show 
that  in  arithmetic  we  solve  particular  problems,  while  in 
algebra  we  derive  general  formulae  which  will  apply  to 
all  cases. 


CHAPTER   IV. 

Geometry. 

GeC'METRY  has  been  variously  defined  as  the  science 
of  Space,  tlie  science  of  Extension,  and  the  science  of 
Form.  Form  is  either  pure  or  real.  Pure  form  is  a 
portion  of  space  limited  in  idea,  but  having  no  content. 
Real  form  is  a  portion  of  space  occupied  by  matter. 
Geometry  treats  of  pure  form,  but  the  principles  of 
the  science  may  be  applied  to  real  form. 

The  science  of  geometry  is  deductive.  Indeed,  it  is 
usually  regarded  as  the  type  of  all  deductive  sciences. 
It  has  for  its  basis  axioms  and  fundamental  truths,  and 
from  these  are  derived,  by  the  process  of  reasoning,  other 
truths  equally  important,  but  less  general  in  their  appli- 
cation. It  begins  with  the  general  and  proceeds  to  the 
particular,  thus  following  strictly  the  course  of  deductive 
reasoning. 

The  term  geometry  is  derived  from  the  Greek  ge,  the 
earth,  and  metron,  a  measure,  and  means,  literally,  "earth- 
measurinsr."  Whether  it  was  ever  limited  in  its  applica- 
tion  to  what  we  know  as  land-surveying  or  land-measuring 
is  now  a  disputed  question.  It  is  fair  to  presume,  however, 
that  in  the  early  stages  of  development  this  science,  like 
all  others,  had  its  first  growth  in  connection  with  the  con- 
crete, and  that  its  abstract  principles  are  the  outgrowth 

of  practical  observation. 

327 


328  METHODS   OF   TEACUING, 

Methods  of  Teaching  Geometry. 

The  science  of  geoiuetiy  proper  cannot  be  taught  to 
young  children.  The  processes  of  geometrical  reasoning 
require  minds  more  fully  matured  and  more  thoroughly 
disciplined  than  we  should  expect  to  find  in  the  child 
of  average  capacity. 

Children  may,  however,  at  an  early  age  be  taught  to 
distinguish  the  most  important  geometrical  forms  and 
name  them,  and  they  may  also  be  taught,  by  means  of 
objective  illustration,  to  comprehend  some  of  the  most 
important  geometrical  truths  and  the  application  of  these 
truths  in  actual  measurements. 

In  teaching  children  to  distinguish  between  geometrical 
forms  it  must,  however,  be  borne  in  mind  that  we  are  not 
teaching  geometry,  any  more  than  teaching  the  various 
shapes  of  animals  could  be  regarded  as  teaching  zoology. 

Geometrical  Forms.  1.  Lines. — The  differences  in  forms, 
it  will  be  found,  are  most  readily  taught  by  means  of 
object-lessons.  We  may  thus  not  only  teach  the  mean- 
ing of  a  line,  but  also  the  difference  between  straight  and 
curved  lines,  and  show  that  a  broken  line  is  simply  a 
combination  of  straight  lines. 

Positions  of  Lines. — Pupils  should  be  taught  to  dis- 
tinguish readily  the  various  positions  of  lines,  and  be 
able  to  name  them,  as  payxiUel,  oblique,  and  jperpendicular, 
horizontal  and  vertical,  converging  and  diverging.  Their 
knowledge  should  then  be  verified  by  requiring  them 
to  draw  lines  in  various  positions  as  the  teacher  may 
dictate. 

2.  Angles. — The  idea  of  an  angle  may  readily  be  taught 
by  means  of  lines  on  the  blackboard  or  with  two  sticks 


GEOMETRY.  329 

or  pencils  in  the  bands  of  the  toaclicr.  Tlie  pu]>ils  may 
readily  be  made  to  understand  that  mKcu  two  lines  are 
drawn  in  ditferent  directions  iVoni  a  conunon  point,  the 
difference  in  direction  of  these  lines  is  called  an  angle. 

The  idea  of  a  rigid  angle  is  best  taught  by  calling  the 
pupil's  attention  to  the  corner  of  a  slate  or  a  door  or  the 
corners  of  the  room,  and  showing  that  in  a  right  angle 
the  two  lines  which  form  the  angle  are  always  perpen- 
dicular to  each  other.  When  he  has  acquired  the  correct 
notion  of  a  right  angle  he  should  be  required  to  point  out 
all  the  examples  possible,  as  the  corners  of  the  blackboard, 
the  corners  of  the  floor,  etc.  He  raav  next  be  taucrht  the 
meaning  of  the  word  acute  as  being  sharjD,  and  it  may  be 
show'U  that  any  angle  which  is  sharper  or  more  pointed 
than  a  right  angle,  and  which  is  therefore  less  than  a 
right  angle,  is  called  an  acute  angle.  In  a  similar  way 
he  may  be  taught  the  word  obtuse  as  meaning  blunt,  and 
apply  the  term  to  all  angles  that  are  greater  than  right 
angles.  He  should  then  have  numerous  exercises  in  nam- 
ing angles  as  selected,  and  in  drawing  them  as  required. 

3.  Surfaces. — In  teaching  the  various  surfaces  the 
easiest  plan  is  to  place  in  the  hands  of  pupils  a  certain 
number  of  sticks,  as  three,  with  which  to  form  triangles ; 
four,  to  form  quadrilaterals ;  five,  to  form  pentagons ; 
and  so  on.  After  figures  have  thus  been  constructed 
with  sticks,  the  pupils  should  be  permitted  to  form  re- 
quired figures  of  lines  on  the  blackboard  or  on  the  slate, 
and  at  the  same  time  be  taught  the  general  names  tri^ 
angle,  quadrilateral,  etc. 

Triangles. — In  teaching  triangles  let  pupils  be  taught 
that  a  triangle  having  a  right  angle  is  called  a  right- 
angled  triangle,  that  one  having  an  obtuse  angle  is  called 


330  METHODS    OF   TEACHIXO.. 

an  ohtuse-angkd  triangle,  and  that  one  whose  angles  are 
all  acute  is  called  an  acute-angled  triangle. 

Pupils  may  be  taught  also  that  triangles  are  named 
according  to  tlie  relation  of  their  respective  sides.  Thus, 
one  whose  three  sides  are  equal  is  called  an  equilatei^al 
triangle,  one  having  two  sides  equal,  an  isosceles  triangle, 
and  one  whose  sides  are  all  unequal,  a  scalene  triangle. 
Having  learned  the  differences  in  triangles,  .''ither  as  to 
angles  or  as  to  sides,  the  pupils  should  have  actual 
practice  in  the  construction  of  each  kind,  and  be  re- 
quired to  name  the  kind  of  triangle  as  thev  construct 
it. 

Quadrilaterals. — In  teach'ng  the  four-sided  figures  the 
teacher  may  show  that  those  whose  opposite  sides  are 
parallel  are  called  parallelograms,  those  having  only  two 
sides  parallel  are  called  trapezoids,  and  those  having  no 
sides  parallel,  trapeziums. 

He  may  also  show  that  parallelograms  are  divided 
Into  squares  and  rectangles,  rhombuses  and  rhomboids,  ox- 
plaining  that  rectangles  have  their  opposite  sides  parallel 
and  all  their  angles  right  angles,  and  that  tiie  square  is 
a  special  kind  of  rectangle  whose  sides  are  equal.  He 
should  show  also  that  a  rhombus  has  its  sides  parallel 
and  equal,  but  that  its  angles  are  not  right  angles,  and 
that  a  rhomboid  differs  from  a  rhombus  only  in  having 
unequal  sides. 

Let  the  pupil  not  only  name  these  figures,  but  also 
construct  them,  and  show  wherein  they  agree  or  differ. 

The  Circle. — In  teaching  the  circle  lead  pupils  to  dis- 
tinguish between  the  circle  and  its  circumference.  Many 
pupils  confuse  the  two,  considering  the  circle  the  circum- 
ference, instead  of  the  space  included  within  the  circura* 


GEOMETRY.  331 

lerence.  The  various  parts  of  tlie  circle  may  then  be 
taught  anil  named,  as  radius,  diameter,  chord,  arc,  seg- 
ment, sector,  quadrant,  semicircle,  semi-circumference.  The 
division  of  the  circumference  into  degrees  may  be  ex- 
plained to  pupils  who  have  advanced  sufficiently  far  to 
understand  it.  The  manner  of  drawing  a  circle  and  the 
different  parts  of  it  may  also  be  explained. 

Polygons. — Pupils  should  have  practice  in  drawing 
and  naming  the  kinds  of  polygons,  as  pentagons,  hexa- 
gons, octagons,  etc.,  and  the  meaning  of  such  terms  as 
perimeter,  area,  regular,  and  irregular,  should  be  made 
clear  as  soon  as  pupils  are  prepared  to  understand  them. 

4.  Volumes. — These  are  most  readily  taught  by  means 
of  models,  Where  the  teacher  finds  it  impossible  to 
secure  models  by  other  means,  he  may  substitute  various 
objects  th.at  will  enable  hioi  to  illustrate.  Thus,  a 
marble  or  a  ball  may  represent  the  sphere,  a  lead-pencil 
or  a  piece  of  broom-handle,  a  cylinder,  a  pencil-point,  a 
cone;  cubes,  j^^'isms,  pyramids,  etc.  may  be  cut  from 
apples,  potatoes,  or  wood. 

Geometrical  Trutlis.— Pupils  are  able  to  comprehend 
certain  geometrical  truths  long  before  thev  are  al)le  to 
understand  the  reasoning  process  by  which  we  arrive  at 
the  truths  themselves.  Many  theorems  are  susceptible 
of  concrete  demonstration ;  that  is,  they  may  be  illus- 
trated in  su(;h  a  way  as  to  be  comprehended  by  the  pupil 
without  a  process  of  reasoning.  A  few  of  these  theo- 
rems are  o-iven  below : 

1.  If  one  straight  line  meet  another  straight  line,  the 
sum  of  the  tico  adjacent  angles  icill  be  equal  to  two  right 
angles. — This  may  be  shown  by  means  of  a  piece  of 


332  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

paper  having  a  straight  edge.  Let  an  oblique  slit  be  cut 
into  the  paper  from  any  point  on  the  straiglit  line  repre- 
sented-by  the  edge ;  this  will  divide  the  })aper  into  two 
ano-les.  ISTow  let  a  second  slit  be  cut  from  the  same 
point,  but  perpendicular  to  the  edge ;  this  will  divide 
the  surface  into  t\vo  right  angles,  but  it  will  be  seen  at  a 
glance  that  these  two  right  angles  equal  the  two  angles 
originally  cut. 

In  a  similar  manner  it  may  be  shown  that  The  sum  of 
all  the  angles  formed  on  one  side  of  a  straight  line  by  draiu- 
ing  lines  from  the  same  point  is  equal  to  two  right  angles  ; 
also,  that,  since  there  are  but  tv/o  sides  of  a  straight  line, 
All  the  angles  about  a  common  point  are  equal  to  four  right 
angles. 

2.  When  two  straight  lines  intersect  each  other  the  oppo- 
site or  vertical  angles  which  they  form  are  equal.  This 
may  be  shown  by  drawing  two  straight  lines  on  a  piece 
of  paper  in  such  a  way  as  to  intersect.  If  one  of  the 
angles  formed  is  cut  from  the  paper  and  ap23lied  to  its 
opposite,  they  will  be  found  to  coincide. 

3.  ]]lien  two  triangles  have  two  sides,  and  the  included 
angle  of  one  respectively  equal  to  tv^o  sides  and  the  in- 
cluded angle  of  the  other,  the  two  triangles  are  equal. — • 
This  may  be  shown  by  cutting  one  triangle  from  paper 
and  then  drawing  another  on  paper,  making  the  two  sides 
and  the  included  angle  agree  with  the  two  sides  and  the 
included  angle  of  the  given  triangle.  Completing  the 
triangle  by  joining  the  extremities  of  the  two  sides,  it 
will  be  found  that  when  one  triangle  is  placed  on  the 
other  they  coincide  and  are  equal. 

By  a  similar  process  it  may  be  shown  that  When  two 
angles  have  tico  angles,  and  the  included  side  of  the  one 


GEOMETRY.  333 

equal  to  two  angles  and  the  included  side  of  the  other,  re- 
spectively, the  triangles  are  equal. 

4.  The  sum  of  the  three  angles  of  a  jMne  triangle  is 
equal  to  two  right  angles. — This  may  be  shown  by  cut- 
ting a  triangle  from  paper,  and  then  cutting  off  two  of 
the  angles  and  phicing  them  one  on  each  side  of  the 
remaining  angle.  It  will  be  found  that  they  equal 
three  angles  meeting  at  a  common  point  on  the  same 
side  of  a  straight  line,  and  therefore  equal  two  right 
angles. 

5.  The  area  of  a  rectangle  equals  the  product  of  the 
number  of  units  in  the  base  mxdtiplied  by  the  number  in 
its  altitude. — This  may  be  shown  by  drawing  lines 
parallel  both  to  the  base  and  to  the  perpendicular, 
dividing  the  rectangle  into  unit-spaces,  when  it  will 
be  found  that  the  number  in  the  rectangle  equals  the 
number  in  the  base  multiplied  by  the  number  in  the 
perpendicular.  It  may  be  shown  also  by  first  drawing 
the  lines  on  a  sheet  of  paper  and  then  cutting  the  paper 
into  squares  of  one  unit  each. 

The  area  of  any  parallelogram  may  be  explained  by 
cutting  the  figure  out  of  paper,  and  then  cutting  off  the 
triangular  portion  at  one  end  by  a  line  perpendicular  to 
the  base,  and  fitting  it  on  at  the  other  to  show  that  every 
parallelogram  may  be  converted  into,  or  is  equivalent  to, 
a  rectano-le  having;  the  same  base  and  altitude. 

G.  The  area  of  a  triangle  is  cqucd  to  one-half  the  product 
of  its  base  and  altitude. — This  can  be  illustrated  by  cut- 
ting a  number  of  parallelograms  from  })aper  and  divid- 
ing them  diagonally,  so  as  to  show  that  in  every  case  a 
triangle  is  half  a  jiarallelogram  ;  and  since  the  area  of  a 
parallelogram  equals  the  product  of  its  base  and  altitude, 


S34  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

the  area  of  a  triangle,  Avliich  is  half  a  parallelogram,  is 
just  one  half  as  much,  or  half  the  product  of  its  base 
and  altitude. 

7.  The  area  of  a  trapezoid  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  its  two 
parallel  sides  multiplied  hy  one-half  the  altitude. — This 
may  be  shown  readily  by  cutting  the  trapezoid  diag- 
oually,  so  as  to  show  that  it  is  equal  to  two  triangles. 

8.  The  square  described  on  the  hijpothenuse  of  a  right- 
angled  triangle  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  squares  described 
on  the  other  two  sides. — This  may  be  shown  by  drawing  a 
right-angled  triangle  on  paper,  having  the  three  lines  each 
a  certain  number  of  inches  in  length,  as  5,  4,  3,  or  10,  8, 
6.  Let  a  square  be  constructed  on  each  of  the  three 
sides,  and  divide  each  of  these  squares  into  inch-squares. 
In  every  case  it  will  be  found  that  the  number  of  inch- 
squares  formed  in  the  square  described  on  the  hypoth- 
enuse  equals  the  number  contained  in  the  squares  de- 
scribed on  the  other  two  sides. 

9.  A  perpendicular  is  the  shortest  line  that  can  be-drawn 
from  a  point  to  a  plane. — This  may  be  shown  by  attach- 
ing a  string  to  any  point  overhead,  and  shortening  it  so 
that  it  just  touches  a  table  placed  beneath  when  the  line 
is  perpendicular.  The  pupils  will  readily  see  that  as 
soon  as  the  string  is  moved  out  of  the  perpendicular  the 
line  is  found  to  be  too  short. 

10.  27ie  volume  of  a  parallelopipedon  is  equal  to  the 
product  of  its  three  dimensions. — This  may  be  shown 
readily  by  taking  any  box  whose  inside  dimensions  are 
multiples  of  an  inch  and  filling  the  box  with  inch-cubes. 

These  concrete  demonstrations  will  be  found  valuable 
not  onlv  in  teaeliing  these  geometrical  truths  as  such, 
but  also  frequently  in  enabling  the  student  to  compre- 


GEOMETRY.  335 

hcnd  more  clearly  and  more  readily  the  process  of  rea- 
soning by  -wliich  they  are  usually  reached. 

The  Science  of  Geometry. — When  pupils  have  ouc6 
reached  that  stage  of  advancement  where  it  is  thouglit 
they  can  understand  and  originate  geometrical  demon- 
strations, it  is  well  that  they  should  study  a  textbook  on 
geometry. 

Definitions  and  Axioms. — The  usual  plan  in  textbooks 
on  geometry  is  to  present  the  axioms  and  definitions  of 
the  science  in  the  beginning,  and  these  the  pupil  is  ex- 
pected to  memorize  so  as  to  be  able  to  a})ply  them  at  any 
time.  It  is  doubtful,  however,  as  to  the  wisdom  of 
requiring  a  pupil  to  memorize  any  definition  until  he 
has  use  for  it.  It  seems  better,  therefore,  that  the  def- 
initions at  least  should  be  scattered  throuo-h  the  book 
in  such  a  way  as  to  present  themselves  when  they  are 
needed. 

When  definitions  in  geometry  are  taught,  the  teacher 
should  not  be  satisfied  with  the  mere  repetition  of  the 
words.  He  should  see  that  the  pupil  understands  the 
definition  by  having  him  illustrate  it.  Thus,  if  the 
pupil  define  an  angle  or  the  different  kinds  of  angles, 
let  him  draw  one  of  each  on  the  blackboard.  The 
teacher  should  see  also  that  each  definition  is  strictly 
accurate.  The  pupil  cannot  hope  to  improve  on  the 
language  of  most  geometrical  definitions,  which  have 
been  worded  by  the  best  mathematicians  of  the  world. 

Reasoning. — The  two  chief  methods  of  reasoning  in 
geometry  are  tlie  Direct  and  the  Indirect.  The  Direct 
method  of  demonstration  proceeds  to  prove  a  trutli  by 
refei'ring   to   axioms,   definitions,   or   previously-proved 


336  METHODS    OF   TEACHIXG. 

propositions,  and  thus  reaches  a  conclusion  whlcli  cannot 
be  questioned. 

The  Indirect  raetliod,  known  also  as  the  reductio  ad 
absurdum,  proceeds  by  supposing  that  the  proposition  to 
be  proven  is  not  true.  It  establishes  hypotheses  which 
contradict  the  proposition,  and  reasons  on  these  liy- 
])otheses  until  a  conclusion  is  reached  which  contradicts 
some  known  or  established  truth.  The  proposition  is 
proved  true  by  showing  tliat  the  original  hypotheses  are 
false.  A  proposition  is  frequently  tluis  proven  by  show- 
hig  that  its  opposite  cannot  be  true.  Either  method  of 
proof  may  be  used,  but  in  general  the  direct  method, 
wherever  applicable,  will  be  found  the  simpler  of  the 
two. 

Original  Demonstrations. — Xotliing  is  more  conducive 
to  clear  geometrical  reasoning  tlian  having  puj)ils  give 
demonstrations  of  their  own.  Authors  of  textbooks  on 
geometry  \vlio  have  set  apart  a  number  of  undemon- 
strated  theorems  which  the  pupils  are  required  to 
demonstrate  for  themselves  deserve  very  great  credit. 
Many  a  student  in  the  past  has  seemingly  studied  geom- 
etry for  months  without  liis  teacher  having  discovered 
the  fact  that  he  was  simply  committing  to  memory  not 
only  the  propositions,  but  also  the  argument.  Original 
demonstrations  will  prevent  any  such  practice,  and  at 
the  same  time  lead  the  pupil  to  strengthen  his  reasoning 
powers  by  giving  them  practical  exercise. 

Mensuration. — The  study  of  geometry  may  be  made 
practical  and  useful  not  only  by  the  valuable  exercise 
which  it  affords  to  tJie  reasoning  powers,  but  also  in  the 
application  of  its  principles  to  the  solution  of  practical 
problems    in    measurements.      Mensuration   should    be 


GEOMETRY.  337 

taught  with  geometry,  and  every  textbook  on  the  latter 
science  shoukl  have  a  sufficient  number  of  problems  to 
afford  the  student  an  opportunity  to  apply  the  principles 
in  practice. 

Suggestions  on  Teaching  Geometry. 

1.  When  pupils  are  called  upon  to  recite,  have  them 
construct  the  diagrams  from  memory  and  without  the 
use  of  a  ruler. 

2.  Have  pupils  arrange  the  letters  of  the  diagrams 
differcntlv,  or  substitute  others  for  those  used  in  the 
textl)ook.  The  use  of  figures  instead  of  letters  is  not 
to  be  commended,  as  they  frequently  confuse  the  pupil, 
particularly  if  he  be  a  beginner. 

3.  Assign  the  work  promiscuously,  unless  your  students 
differ  greatly  in  ability.  In  such  case  the  timid  or  back- 
ward should  be  encouraged  by  giving  them  some  of  the 
easier  demonstrations. 

4.  Hequire  the  pupil  when  making  an  explanation 
or  giving  a  demonstration  to  face  the  class  as  nearly  as 
possible,  and  hold  the  pointer  in  the  hand  Jiearest  the 
blackboard. 

5.  Have  pupils  write  out  the  important  equations* and 
symbols  on  the  board,  so  that  both  the  teacher  and  the 
pupils  who  listen  may  follow  the  demonstration  readily. 

6.  Encourage  pupils  to  give  original  demonstrations; 
this  will  train  them  to  think  and  reason  for  themselves. 

7.  Be  careful  to  see  that  pupils  do  not  commit  to  mem- 
ory the  steps  of  reasoning.  The  number  of  pupils  who 
attempt  to  memorize  the  demonstration  as  given  in  the 
textbook  is  remarkably  great. 

8.  AVhon  pupils  have  not  all  an  opportunity  to  demou- 

22 


338  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

strate  orally  in  the  same  recitation,  require  a  portion  of  the 
class  to  write  out  on  paper  the  demonstrations  of  one  or 
two  theorems,  so  as  to  keep  all  in  practice  and  give  all 
the  benefit  of  the  reasoning. 

9.  Require  pupils  to  illustrate  any  axioms  or  defini- 
tions which  you  may  have  reason  to  believe  they  do  not 
fully  understand. 

10.  See  tliat  every  point  and  every  demonstration  is 
clearly  understood  before  permitting  a  pupil  to  pass  on 
to  another.  If  this  jilan  be  jiursued,  pupils  ought  to 
have  little  trouble  in  comprehending  and  mastering  the 
science. 


PHYSICAL    SCIENCE. 


CHAPTER  I. 

The  Elements   of   Physical   Science. 

The  Physical  Sciences  are  those  which  treat  of  tlie 
physical  or  material  world.  So  many  new  facts  and  truths 
in  this  department  of  science  are  discovered  from  time  to 
time,  and  the  sciences  themselves  so  interlace,  that  it 
seems  hardly  possible  to  suggest  a  classification  M'hich 
can  be  considered  as  strictly  satisfactory,  and  no  com- 
plete or  satisfactory  classification  of  them  lias  ever  yet 
been  made.  The  followinsr  are  among  the  most  ini- 
portant  of  the  physical  sciences  to  be  taught :  Natural 
History,  Physiology,  Natural  Philosophy,  Astronomy, 
Chemistry,  Geology,  and  Geography. 

The  Basis  of  Physical  Science  is  })hysical  facts  and 
phenomena,  and  these  in  turn  depend  for  their  value 
upon  the  uniformity  of  Nature  in  her  operations.  By 
observation  of  these  facts  and  phenomena  we  are  enabled 
to  classify  them  and  derive  the  general  causes  which  pro- 
duce them,  as  well  as  determine  the  laws  by  wdiich  they 
are  governed. 

It  is  not  meant  to  discuss  here  in  detail  the  ])hysical 
sciences  nor  the  methods  of  teaching  them,  but  rather  to 

339 


340  METHODS    OF    TEACHIXG. 

sliow  how  the  Elements  of  Physical  Science  may  be 
taught  to  at  least  a  limited  extent  in  all  grades  of 
schools.  All  that  the  teacher  of  rural  or  ungraded 
schools  can  hope  to  do  is  to  acquaint  his  pupils  with 
some  of  the  facts  and  principles  of  the  most  useful  oi' 
these  sciences.  The  discussion  of  Geography  is  given 
more  at  length  here,  because  it  is  one  of  the  recognized 
studies  in  every  school-course.  , 

I.  The  Value  of  Physical  Science. 

1 .  Physical  Science  is  Valuable  for  the  Practical  Knowl- 
edge which,  it  Affords. — The  imjiortance  of  a  knowledge 
of  the  elementary  facts  of  physical  science  is  beginning 
to  assert  itself  among  ])rogressive  teachers  everywhere, 
and  tiie  time  is  not  distant  when  it  will  not  only  claim, 
but  also  receive,  proper  recognition  at  the  hands  of  all 
interested  in  true  education.  As  has  been  aptly  said  by 
Dr.  Wickersham  with  reference  to  the  usefulness  of  these 
sciences  to  man,  "  They  treat  of  the  light  by  which  he 
sees,  the  heat  by  which  he  is  warmed,  the  air  which 
he  breathes,  the  earth  from  which  he  draws  his  suste- 
nance, and  the  animals  and  ])lants  that  minister  to  his 
wants."  They  treat  also  of  his  body,  the  food  he  eats, 
and  the  manner  in  which  it  ministers  to  growth  and 
strength,  as  well  as  the  means  by  Avhich  he  may  preserve 
both  life  and  health. 

2.  Physical  Science  is  Valuable  as  a  Mental  Discipline. 
— It  gives  exercise  to  almost  every  faculty  of  the  mind. 
It  is  particularly  valuable  for  the  culture  which  it  gives 
to  perception.  The  proper  study  of  i)hysical  science 
requires  pupils  to  give  close  and  critical  attention  to  the 
facts  and  phenomena  investigated.     The  observation  of 


THE    ELEMENTS    OF    PHYSICAL   SCIENCE.  341 

these  facts  and  phenomena  is  necessarily  accni'atc,  and  the 
power  of  perception  is  quickened  and  strengthened.  No 
other  branch  of  science  is  so  effective  in  o-ivinsr  culture 
lo  ])erceptiou.  Pliysical  science  affords  valuable  culture 
also  to  meraory,  to  the  imagination,  to  the  undei'standing, 
and  even  to  the  reason. 

3.  Physical  Science  is  Valuable  for  the  Data  which  it 
Affords  for  Inductive  Reasoning. — This  will  readily  be 
seen  from  the  fact  that  in  building  up  any  physical 
science  tlie  truths  are  derived  entirely  by  the  process 
of  induction.  In  learning  a  physical  science  the  student 
first  observes  individual  facts,  and  then  seeks  causes ;  he 
first  observes  the  phenomena,  and  then  inquires  into  the 
general  laws  and  principles  by  which  these  phenomena 
are  governed.  The  process  is  strictly  in  accordance  with 
the  principles  of  induction,  and  the  practice  afforded 
proves  specially  valuable  in  giving  the  learner  exercise 
in  inductive  reasoning, 

While  the  investigations  of  physical  science  give 
valuable  training  in  the  process  of  inductive  reasoning, 
the  plan  of  teaching  may  be  either  inductive  or  deduc- 
tive. We  may,  for  instance,  show  by  actual  experiment 
that  heat  expands  iron  ;  we  may  show  also,  l)y  actual 
experiment,  that  heat  expands  tin,  copper,  zinc,  and 
other  known  metals;  and  from  this  we  may  derive  and 
teach  the  general  truth  that  heat  expands  all  metals, 
'iliis  general  principle  is  reached  wholly  by  the  j)rocess 
of  induction.  ^Ve  may  also  teach  the  general  princi})le, 
first,  that  heat  expands  all  metals,  and  then  apjily  the 
law  to  the  particular  metals  already  known  and  to  those 
hereafter  discovered.  Yv"e  reach  the  princi[)le  by  induc- 
tion, and  make  the  application  of  it  by  deduction  to  all 


342  METPIODS    OF    TEACHING. 

subsequent  facts  aud  phenomena  that  may  be  included 
under  the  general  law. 

4.  Physical  Science  is  Valuable  for  the  Training  wliich 
it  Gives  in  Classification. — The  classifications  in  physical 
science  are  the  most  loo;ical  to  be  found  in  the  whole 
domain  of  science.  The  arrangement  into  kingdoms, 
orders,  genera,  species,  etc.,  as  given  in  botany,  zoology, 
and  other  physical  sciences,  is  a  model  of  perfect  classi- 
fication. Ko  other  sciences  afford  such  valuable  training 
to  those  powers  of  the  mind  which  classify  and  generalize, 
and  thus  reach  and  establish  general  laws  and  ])rinciples. 

5.  Physical  Science  is  Valuable  in  Counteracting  the 
Dogmatic  Tendency  of  Deductive  Science. — The  tendency 
of  deductive  science  is  to  make  thinkers  dogmatic  and 
arbitrary.  The  general  principle  having  been  established 
and  promulgated,  all  facts  must  be  made  to  conform  to  the 
law.  Inductive  reasoning,  on  the  other  hand,  tends  to 
make  tlie  thinker  patient  in  his  investigation  of  truth. 
He  soon  learns  that  hastv  generalizations  often  lead  to 
incorrect  conclusions.  Hypothesis  after  hypothesis  may 
be  established,  only  to  be  rejected  and  cast  aside  as  it  is 
found  to  be  untrue;  and  so  the  process  continues  until 
some  hypothesis  is  verified,  and  thus  a  theory  is  reached. 
It  is  said  that  Kepler  established  and  rejected  nineteen 
hypotheses  before  he  discovered  the  theory  of  elliptical 
orbits.  Most  theories  are  merely  verified  hypotheses. 
Thus,  the  theory  of  universal  gravitation,  the  Coper- 
nican  theory  of  the  solar  system,  and  others,  each  was 
originally  a  hypothesis,  or  what  La  Place  called  a 
"great  guess." 

The  student  of  physical  science  observes  facts,  investi- 
gates patiently,  often  finds  himself  mistakfin,  and  only 


THE    ELEMENTS   OF    PHYSICAL    SCIEIsCE.  343 

tlu'ough  a  long  train  of  experiments  and  observations 
reaches  tlie  truth.  He  is  modest  in  his  statements,  be- 
cause none  know  so  well  as  he  how  easy  it  is  to  reach 
an  incorrect  conclusicn  unless  all  the  facts  and  all  the 
phenomena  are  closely  observed  and  their  relations  to 
other  facts  and  phenomena  correctly  noted.  It  would 
prove  valuable  mental  discipline  for  every  student  of 
either  mathematical  or  metaphysical  science  were  he  to 
pursue  also  a  course  of  study  in  physical  science.  Tlie 
tendency  in  our  schools  to  devote  the  greatest  portion  of 
the  time  to  mathematics  might  be  corrected  by  tiie  intro- 
duction of  the  elements  of  physical  sciencCj  even  if  noth- 
ing more  could  be  done  than  to  give  a  short  oral  lesson  on 
some  topic  once  a  day  to  the  school. 

The  utility  of  the  physical  sciences  cannot  well  be  ques- 
tioned. They  make  man  acquainted  not  only  with  the 
inorganic  world,  Math  which  he  has  to  do  in  almost 
every  calling  in  life,  but  also  with  the  organic  world, 
of  which  he  himself  is  an  important  part.  By  means 
of  these  sciences  he  becomes  acquainted  with  his  own 
environment  and  the  relation  of  his  surroundings  to 
himself.  He  also  gains  a  knowledge  of  himself  and 
his  physical  constitution,  which  is  necessary  not  only  to 
preserve  health,  but  also  to  prevent  untimely  or  prema- 
ture death.  Physical  science  enters  into  almost  every 
calling  in  life.  Indeed,  it  lies  at  the  foundation  of  all 
our  industries  and  physical  advancement. 

Phvsical  science  had  its  origin  to  a  {rreat  extent  in  the 
physical  necessities  of  mankind.  It  was  thus  that  rail- 
ways were  built,  canals  were  dug,  houses  were  erected  for 
shelter,  manufactories  were  establisl  ed  to  give  us  clothing 
and  furnish  food  and  labor-saving  machinery,  shijDS  and 


344  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

steamers  were  put  on  the  ocean  to  carry  and  exchange 
the  products  of  various  countries;  in  short,  viewed  from 
a  utilitarian  standpoint,  nothing  has  done  more  to  amelio- 
rate the  condition  of  man  and  lift  him  to  a  higher  plane 
of  civilization  than  the  application  of  the  principles  of 
physical  science  to  his  daily  wants. 

The  facts  which  form  the  basis  of  physical  science  He 
all  around  us,  and  we  could  not  escape  them  if  we  would. 
They  crowd  upon  us  from  every  direction,  demanding 
recognition  ;  and  that  is  not  only  a  faulty  system  of 
education,  but  also  a  pernicious  one,  which  ignores  their 
importance.  The  great  utility  of  physical  science  to  every 
member  of  the  human  family,  and  the  fact  that  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  various  physicxil  sciences  is  so  readily  acquired 
and  an  interest  in  them  so  easily  aroused,  ought  to  ensure 
them  a  warm  welcome  in  every  course  of  study. 

II.  The  Sciences  to  be  Taught. 

In  teaching  physical  science  in  the  public  schools 
nothing  more  than  the  elements  should  be  attempted 
in  grades  below  the  high  school.  The  following  are 
the  chief  sciences  whose  elements  may  be  presented  in 
an  interesting  form  by  the  teacher,  and  whose  primary 
facts  and  principles  may  be  made  matters  of  observation 
for  the  child's  own  mind :  Zoology,  Botany,  Mineralogy 
■ — these  three  being  known  as  Natural  Historv,  which 
treats  of  the  three  kingdoms,  animal,  vegetable,  and 
mineral — Physiology,  Natural  Philosophy,  Astronomy, 
Chemistrv,  Geologv. 

All  of  the  foregoing  branches  are  important  in  train- 
ing pupils  to  habits  of  observation  and  reflection,  but 
some  of  them  are  specially  important  in  their  bearing 


THE    ELEMENTS   OF    PHYSICAL   SCIENCE.  345 

on  the  practical  aifairs  of  life.  Z\>o]ouy,  Botany,  and 
Mineralogy,  all  furnish  valuable  information  for  the 
agriculturist.  The  same  may  be  said  of  Chemistry, 
and  to  some  extent  of  Natural  Philosophy.  The 
farmer  who  has  a  knowledge  of  these  cannot  fail  to 
be  more  successful  than  one  mIio  is  ignorant  of  them. 
Natural  Philosophy  is  important  also  to  the  mechanic, 
and  his  success  depends  to  a  great  extent  upon  his 
knowledge  of  the  leading  principles  and  laws  of  this 
science.  A  knowledge  of  Physiology  and  Hygiene  is 
indispensable  to  every  one,  no  matter  what  his  calling 
in  life  may  be.  This  science  concerns  the  individual 
physical  welfare  of  us  all,  and  there  is  no  branch  of 
science,  physical  or  otherwise,  that  deserves  so  much 
attention  or  that  has  stronger  claims  to  a  prominent 
place  in  the  course  of  study. 

ill.  Suggestions  on  Teaching  the   Elements  of   Piiysical 

Science. 

1.  Oral  Instruction. — The  teaching  in  elementary  .cience 
should  be  almost  wholly  oral.  Everything  in  the  nature 
of  a  formal  recitation  should  be  carefully  avoided  at  lirst. 

2.  Observation. — The  child's  natural  method  of  ac- 
quiring knowledge  is  by  using  its  senses.  Nature  pre- 
sents everywhere  facts  and  phenomena  full  of  interest  to 
the  child,  and  it  in  turn  gleans  knowledge  by  folloAving 
the  bent  of  its  own  inclination  as  Nature  directs.  The 
first  work  of  the  teacher,  therefore,  consists  in  encour- 
aging the  child  to  observe,  but  he  should  also  see  that 
the  child's  observations  are  made  systematically,  other- 
wise there  will  be  much  misdirected  effort. 

3.  Expression. — "  Observation,"  says  Pestalozzi,  "  is  the 


346  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

absolute  basis  of  all  knowledge.  The  first  object,  then, 
in  education  must  be  to  lead  a  child  to  observe  with  ac- 
curacy;  the  second,  to  express  with  correctness  the  result 
of  its  observation." 

4.  Objective  Teaching. — Objective  teaching  embraces 
two  methods  of  procedure — first,  Perceptive  Teaching, 
or  that  in  which  the  object  is  placed  before  the  pupils 
for  them  to  examine  and  observe  for  themselves ;  and, 
secondly,  Conceptive  Teaching,  in  wdiich  impressions  pre- 
viously made  through  perception  are  recalled  and  utilized, 
the  objects  not  being  present  to  the  senses.  A  lesson  on 
any  object  previously  perceived,  but  not  now  present, 
would  necessarily  involve  conceptive  teaching. 

5.  Familiar  Objects. — The  first  instruction  in  physical 
science  should  be  in  connection  with  familiar  animals, 
plants,  and  minerals,  for  the  rea.son  that  the  child  has 
already  some  knowledge  of  these.  Care  must  be  taken, 
however,  that  the  lessons  on  these  be  not  continued  so 
lonff  as  to  weaken  the  child's  interest. 

6.  Pictures. — Real  objects  are  preferable  in  teaching 
physical  science,  but  where  these  are  not  procurable  use 
pictures  or  models,  or  other  sensible  representations  of 
objects.   . 

7.  Scientific  Terms. — As  far  as  possible,  the  use  of 
technical  terms  should  be  avoided  in  teaching  natural 
science  to  beginners.  The  time  to  be  scientific  has  not 
yet  come.  It  is  not  science  that  the  pupils  need  so 
much  as  it  is  the  training  of  accurate  observation  of 
physical  facts  and  phenomena. 

8.  Self-Help. — Where  it  is  possible  for  a  pupil  to  dis 
cover  a  fact  for  himself  the  teacher  should  give  no  help. 
This  was  the  secret  of  success  in  much  of  Agassiz's  teach- 


THE    ELEMENTS  OF    PHYSICAL   SCIENCE.  347 

Ing.  AVhcn  requested  ou  one  occasion  to  give  some  in- 
struclion  on  insects  before  a  teachers'  institute,  he  went 
out  and  collected  several  hundred  grasshoppers  and  placed 
them  in  the  hands  of  the  teachers,  directing  each  ])erson 
to  examine  the  insect  for  himself.  He  says  :  "  The  ex- 
amination had  not  been  carried  on  long  before  every  one 
became  interested,  and,  instead  of  looking  at  me,  looked 
at  the  thing.  And  they  began  to  examine,  and  to  ap- 
preciate what  it  was  to  see  and  see  carefullv."  Every 
pupil  should  be  encouraged  to  see  for  himself,  and  then 
give  expression  to  his  own  thoughts. 

9.  Definitions. —  If  definitions  are  given  at  all,  they 
should  be  such  only  as  are  necessary.  A  few  technical 
terms,  as  organic,  inorganic,  mineral,  etc.,  must  necessa- 
rily be  used,  and  these  may  be  defined,  but  the  pupil 
should  be  led  to  the  definition  by  the  inductive  process, 
rather  than  have  the  definition  ready-worded  for  him. 

10.  Questions. — The  teacher  may  lead  the  pupil  to 
discover  many  facts  and  peculiarities  about  the  objects 
examined  by  appropriate  questions  judiciously  put.  This 
also  was  one  of  the  features  of  Agassiz's  teaching.  In- 
stead of  pointing  out  a  fact,  he  directed  the  pupil  to 
observe.  It  is  also  in  accordance  with  all  proper  object- 
teaching,  in  which  the  pupil,  after  having  told  what  he 
knows,  is  led  to  discover  new  facts  and  additional  kuowl- 
eds:e  for  himself. 

11.  Tangible  Illustrations. — Frequently,  where  it  is  im- 
possible to  bring  an  object  before  a  class,  a  similar  object 
may  be  used  for  the  purpose  of  illustration.  Thus,  in 
order  to  explain  respiration  and  human  lungs,  let  the 
lungs  of  a  sheep  or  a  calf  be  brought  to  class  to  be 
examined    by  the    pupils.      In   a  similar    manucrj   the 


318  METHODS    OF    TEACIIIXG. 

heart,  arteries,  windpipe,  bones,  eyes,  and  other  organg 
of  a  sheep  or  a  calf  may  be  used  to  illustrate  objectively 
similar  human  organs. 

12.  Experiments. — Where  experiments  are  performed, 
let  them  be  such  as  the  children  can  readily  understand. 
The'  pupils  should  also  be  permitted  to  conduct  experi- 
ments for  themselves.  The  apparatus  to  be  used  in 
these  experiments  need  not  necessarily  be  expensive. 
The  lever  pan  be  illustrated  quite  as  readily  by  means 
of  a  lead-pencil  or  a  stick  as  with  the  most  highly- 
polished  bar  of  steel.  All  the  mechanical  powers  may 
be  illustrated  and  explained  with  apparatus  that  need 
cost  but  little.  Pop -guns,  bits  of  rubber,  marbles,  putty- 
blowers,  strings,  scre^vs,  spools,  and  numerous  other  ar- 
ticles whose  home  is  the  boy's  pocket,  may  be  made  to 
illustrate  laws  in  Natural  Philosophy,  and  the  experi- 
ments performed  with  these  simple  articles  will  prove 
none  the  less  practical  and  valuable  because  of  the  sim- 
plicity of  the  apparatus. 

13.  Conversational  Lessons. — The  exercises  in  element- 
ary science-teaching  should  be  mainly  conversational. 
Pupils  should  be  })ermitted  to  ask  all  questions  of 
possible  interest  relative  to  the  objects  examined,  and 
where  facts  are  not  developed  by  the  pupils  the  teacher 
should  question,  so  as  to  direct  the  learner  in  the  proper 
channel  of  investigation.  The  skillful  use  of  questions 
i=  the  teacher's  chief  means  of  awakening  thought. 

14.  Associated  Facts. — Associated  facts  are  not  always 
scientifically  related.  Thus,  the  uses  of  animals  and  an- 
ecdotes concerning  them  have  no  relation,  scientifically 
considered.  Pupils  should,  however,  be  permitted  to 
folbw  their  own  line  of  observation,  and  associate  such 


THE   ELEMENTS   OF   PHYSICAL  SCIEXCE.  349 

facts  as  to  them  seem  most  interestinir.  Thft  scientitie 
details  and  outlines  may  be  taught  later.  Many  of  the 
facts,  especially  those  relating  to  Natural  History,  pupils 
will  observe  for  themselves  out  of  school. 

15.  Tlie  Teacher's  Preparation. — It  is  impossible  for 
any  teacher  to  present  the  subject  of  elementary  physical 
science  in  any  of  its  departments  in  an  attractive  and  in- 
teresting way  without  being  personally  interested  in  the 
study,  and  without  having  made  himself  practically 
familiar  with  the  most  important  parts  of  the  science. 
Nor  should  he  attempt  to  give  any  instruction  in  sci- 
ence to  beginners  unless  he  has  made  special  preparation 
to  awaken  their  interest  in  the  subject. 

16.  Common  Phenomena. — Special  attention  should  be 
given  to  such  phenomena  as  the  pupil  can  observe  for 
himself  and  such  as  arouse  a  spirit  of  inquiry  in  his 
mind.  Thus,  the  phenomena  of  rain,  fog,  dew,  ice,  and 
snow,  the  crystallization  and  stratification  of  minerals, 
the  origin  of  s]:)rings,  and  the  habits  of  animals  and 
plants,  should  all  be  made  subjects  for  his  observation 
and  study. 

17.  School  Cabinets. — Whatever  the  grade  of  the 
school,  let  cabinets  be  formed,  and,  if  possible,  let  the 
objects  contained  in  the  cabinet  be  properly  classified  by 
the  teacher.  Encourage  pupils  also  to  add  specimens  to 
the  school  cabinet,  and  thus  keep  up  the  interest  per- 
manently. 

18.  Practical  Knowledge.— "  If  scientifiG  training  is  to 
yield  its  most  eminent  results,"  says  Huxley,  "  it  must, 
I  repeat,  be  made  practical."  Do  not  be  satisfied  to  tell 
a  scientific  fact  to  the  learner;  let  him  show  for  him.self 
t])at  it  is  true.     Even  let  him  doubt  until  he  sees  the 


350  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

proof  for  himself.  Do  not  rest  satisfied  with  showing 
hlra  that  water  expands  by  freezing;  let  him  fill  a  bottle 
M'ith  water  and  try  the  experiment  for  himself.  Let  him 
handle  the  plants,  animals,  and  minerals,  and  examine 
them,  in  order  that  his  knowledge  may  be  practical 
rather  than  theoretical. 

19.  Encourage  Curiosity. — You  cannot  hope  to  answer 
all  the  questions  tiiat  interested  pupils  may  be  inclined 
to  ask,  but  do  not  on  that  account  repress  their  inquisi- 
tiveness.  The  more  thorouo-hlv  vou  can  arouse  their 
curiosity,  the  more  successful  will  be  your  teaching. 
Most  scientific  men  are  indebted  for  all  thev  know  of 
science  to  a  spirit  of  curiosity,  by  which  they  were  urged 
forward  in  their  investigations. 

20.  Textbook  Knowledge. — Xowhere  is  mere  textbook 
knowledge  of  so  little  value  as  in  physical  science.  The 
pupil  who  merely  commits  to  memory  scientific  state- 
ments and  copies  outlines  of  classification,  without  that 
practical  information  which  is  gained  only  by  experi- 
ment and  observation,  has  but  a  meagre  knowledge  of 
physical  science. 

21.  The  Uses  of  Objects, — In  the  early  steps  of  phys- 
ical science  explain  to  pupils  as  far  as  possible  the  uses 
of  objects.  Thus,  in  Botany  the  uses  of  certain  plants 
mav  be  tauo-ht,  showino;  that  some  are  valuable  for  fur- 
nishino;  such  beverasces  as  coffee  and  tea,  that  some  are 
valuable  for  clothing,  others  for  building-materials,  and 
still  others  for  their  medicinal  properties  or  their  fruits. 
In  a  similar  manner,  the  uses  of  various  animal  and 
mineral  products  may  be  taught. 

22.  Personal  Knowledge. — In  the  subject  of  Physiology 
much  practical  knowdedge  of  a  personal  nature  may  be 


THE   ELEMENTS   OF   PHYSICAE   SCIEN'CE.  351 

imparted  in  tlie  shape  of  hints  or  suggestions  on  hygiene. 
The  pupil  will  need  to  learn  but  little  of  anatomy  ex- 
cept to  show  the  location  and  the  importance  of  the 
various  bodily  organs.  Teaching  the  child  the  nanjes 
of  the  various  muscles,  nerves,  etc.  is  simply  wasted 
time.  Only  such  terms  should  be  introduced  as  are 
really  necessary  to  understand  the  physiology  and  hy- 
giene of  the  liumau  system. 

A  very  full  knowledge  of  the  physiology  of  the 
human  body,  together  with  the  laws  of  hygiene,  should 
be  taught.  How  to.prevent  taking  cold,  how  to  ])rotect 
the  teeth  from  decay,  how  to  keep  the  stomach  and  the 
lungs  in  a  healthy  condition,  how  and  when  to  bathe, 
how  to  tie  a  severed  artery,  how  to  breathe  only  pure 
air,  how  to  prevent  headache,  and  a  thousand  other 
equally  important  facts— indeed,  everything  that  would 
tend  to  make  our  bodies  healthful  and  beautiful — might 
be  tauffht  in  an  incidental  wav  while  the  teacher  is  con- 
veying  instruction  on  Physiology  and  Hygiene. 

Give  practical  directions  for  preserving  health.  Dis- 
cuss fully  with  your  pupils  the  subjects  of  ventilation, 
food,  sleep,  rest,  work,  play,  bathing,  regular  habits,  the 
uses  and  abuses  of  the  body,  until  you  make  them  real- 
ize the  importance  of  health  and  lead  them  to  form  only 
such  habits  as  are  conducive  to  health  and  longevity  of 
life. 

23.  Classification. — One  of  the  chief  benefits  to  be 
derived  from  the  study  of  natural  science  is  the  train- 
ing that  it  gives  to  the  power  of  classification,  which, 
however,  should  be  the  last  step  in  the  process  of  teacih- 
ing  physical  science.  Children  should  be  led  to  see  only 
the  chief  differences  at  first,  and  when  they  are  prepared 


352  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

to  divide  objects  into  groups  according  to  similarities  or 
peculiarities  let  them  use  the  simplest  possible  terms  to 
indicate  the  basis  of  division.  The  scientific  terms  may 
be  taught  to  better  advantage  when  the  pupil  is  once  pre- 
pared to  study  a  textbook. 

24.  Blackboard  Work, — As  the  pupils  proceed  in  science- 
lessons  they  should  be  required  to  reproduce  the  lessons 
on  the  blackboard,  particularly  when  classifications  are 
made  or  synopses  have  been  previously  di-awn  by  the 
teacher.  These  synopses,  however,  should  be  employed 
only  after  the  puj)il  has  had  considerable  practice  in  ob- 
serving and  examining  a  number  of  objects  that  are  sim- 
ilar, so  that  he  may  derive  liis  law  or  principle  wholly 
by  the  process  of  induction.  The  process  of  classification 
is  naturally  objective.  Pupils  should  be  led,  for  instance, 
to  note  the  chief  peculiarities  of  various  animals,  then 
the  peculiarities  found  in  a  number  of  different  kinds, 
as  cud-chewing  in  the  cow,  the  sheep,  the  goat,  etc.  In 
this  manner  the  teacher  may  lead  them  to  classify  for 
themselves  and  draw  synopses,  which  they  ought  to  be 
able  to  reproduce  on  the  blackboard  at  any  time. 

25.  Enthusiasm. — In  the  department  of  Physical  Science 
the  enthusiastic  teacher  is  almost  certain  of  success.  No- 
where else  can  so  much  interest  be  aroused  as  in  this  de- 
partment of  knowledge,  for  nowhere  else  can  the  learner 
gain  knowledge  so  readily  through  the  different  senses 
or  appreciate  so  highly  the  knowledge  he  acquires. 


CHAPTEU    II. 

G  EGG  E  A  PHY. 

The  term  Geography  is  derived  from  the  Greek  gc, 
the  earth,  and  gmplicin,  to  write.  Literally,  it  means 
a  description  of  the  earth.  It  therefore  includes  a 
narrative  not  only  of  the  various  changes  which  have 
been  producetl  by  man,  but  also  of  those  which  have 
been  caused  by  Nature.  It  considers  not  only  the  earth 
itself,  but  all  that  is  connected  with  the  earth.  Hence  in 
its  true  sense  it  includes  many  sciences — Botany,  Zoology, 
Mineralogy,  Geology,  Climatology,  and  others.  It  is  not 
so  much  a  distinctive  science  as  it  is  a  collection  of  facts 
and  principles  belonging  to  various  sciences. 

The  usual  division  of  this  science  is  into  Political 
Geography,  or  that  which  relates  to  man  and  the 
changes  he  has  wrought  on  the  earth,  and  Physical 
Geography,  or  that  which  relates  to  Nature.  Various 
other  terms  are  used  at  times,  as  Mathematical,  Local, 
Historical,  etc.,  which  do  not,  however,  represent  log- 
ical divisions  of  the  subject.  For  the  practical  purposes 
of  teaching  probably  the  best  division  is  into  Descriptive 
Gcograjjhy,  or  that  which  relates  the  facts  and  describes 
the  conditions,  and  Physical  Geography,  or  that  which- 
explains  the  causes  and  accounts  for  the  various  phys- 
ical })henomena. 

23  353 


354  METHODS   OF  TEACHING. 

• 

Methods  of  Teaching  Geography. 

The  two  chief  methods  of  teaching  Geography  are 
known  as  tlie  Synthetic  and  the  Analytic.  The  first  of 
these  begins  with  the  geograpliy  of  the  home  or  tlie 
neighborhood,  and  proceeds  gradually  to  the  world  at 
large.  The  second  begins  with  the  world  as  a  whole, 
and  then  proceeds  to  the  divisions,  the  subdivisions,  etc. 
Much  similar  to  the  analytic  and  the  synthetic  method 
are  the  Deductive  and  the  Inductive.  The  inductive  begins 
with  individual  facts,  and  ])roceeds  to  general  laws  and 
causes,  while  the  deductive  begins  with  the  general  laws, 
and  proceeds  to  the  individual  facts.  The  inductive  and 
the  deductive  method  aj)j)ly  more  directly  to  the  teach- 
ing of  Physical  Geography. 

The  Analytic  Method. — The  analytic  method  of  teach- 
ing Geography  begins  with  the  globe  as  a  whole.  It 
divides  the  surface  of  the  earth  into  land  and  water. 
It  subdivides  land  into  continents,  islands,  peninsulas, 
etc.,  and  water  into  oceans,  seas,  lakes,  rivers,  and  so  on. 
It  again  subdivides  these,  as  continents  into  grand  divis- 
ions, and  these  again  into  countries,  states,  etc.,  until  the 
smallest  political  division  is  reached. 

Advantages. — It  is  claimed  by  the  advocates  of  thia 
method  that  it  has  the  followino;  advantages: 

1.  It  enables  the  teacher  to  use  the  globe  in  the  first 
stages  of  geogra[)hical  teaching. 

2.  It  gives  a  more  correct  view  of  the  relation  and 
the  comparative  size  of  the  different  countries,  divisions 
of  water,  etc.,  than  can  be  acquired  by  the  synthetic 
method. 


GEOGRAPHY.  355 

3.  It  enables  the  teacher  to  explain  the  causes  of  day 
and  night,  the  changes  of  seasons,  and  other  astronomical 
features  of  the  science. 

4.  It  proceeds  from  wholes  to  partSj  and  thus  follows 
the  general  law  of  acquisition. 

The  Synthetic  Method. — The  synthetic  method  of  teach- 
ing Geography  is  the  opposite  of  the  analytic.  It  begins 
Avith  the  gcogra])hy  of  the  home,  the  school-grounds,  and 
the  neighborhood,  and  proceeds  from  these  to  the  larger 
political  divisions  in  turn,  according  to  their  importance, 
until  the  entire  globe  is  embraced  in  the  pupil's  knowl- 
edge. It  begins  with  the  island,  the  hill,  the  valley,  the 
pond  which  the  pupil  can  see,  and  from  these  proceeds 
to  the  continent,  the  mountain,  the  river,  the  lake,  the 
ocean,  etc.,  which  he  can  appreciate  only  by  the  com- 
parison which  he  is  led  to  make  between  these  and  the 
nearer  objects  with  which  he  is  familiar. 

Advantages. — The  chief  advantages  of  the  synthetic 
method,  Avhich  may  really  be  called  the  new  method, 
are  as  follows : 

1.  This  method  of  teaching  illustrates  by  means  of 
familiar  objects,  and  therefore  creates  more  interest  than 
can  be  aroused  by  the  analvtic  method. 

2.  It  proceeds  from  the  known  to  the  unknown,  be- 
ginning with  the  perception  of  the  known  and  proceed- 
ing to  the  conception  of  the  unknown. 

3.  It  presents  that  geographical  knowledge  first  which 
is  of  most  importance  to  the  pupil — namely,  that  of  his 
own  neio-hborhood  and  his  own  State. 

4.  It  oives  the  learner  definite  ideas  as  to  the  meaning 
of  geometrical  terms,  from  the  fact  that  he  begins  with 


356  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

concrete  illustrations,  which  have  to  him  a  definite  sig- 
nification. 

5.  It  proceeds  from  individual  facts  that  are  well 
understood  by  the  pupil  to  the  laws  and  causes  governing 
these  facts,  and  thus  accords  with  the  requirements  of 
inductive  teaching,  which  should  characterize  all  ele- 
mentary M'ork. 

6.  It  gives  the  pupil  such'a  basis  for  geographical 
study  as  Avill  enable  him  to  acquire  a  general  knowledge 
of  the  science  for  himself  should  his  school-time  be  short 
or  his  opportunities  for  securing  an  education  be  limited. 

In  speaking  of  the  manner  of  teaching  Geography, 
Agassiz  says :  "  Let  us  not  at  first  resort  to  books,  but 
let  us  take  a  class  into  the  fields,  point  out  the  hills  and 
valleys,  rivers  and  lakes,  and  let  the  pupils  learn  out  of 
doors  the  points  of  the  compass;  and  then,  having  shown 
them  these  things,  let  them  compare  the  representations 
with  the  realities,  and  the  maps  Avill  have  a  meaning  to 

them When  I  was  in  the  college  of  Neufchatel 

I  desired  to  introduce  such  a  method  of  teaching  Geog-. 
raphy.  I  was  told  it  could  not  be  done,  and  my  request 
to  be  allowed  to  instruct  the  youngest  children  in  the  in- 
stitution was  refused,  I  resorted  to  another  means,  and 
took  my  own  children — my  oldest,  a  boy  of  six  years, 
and  my  girls,  four  and  a  half  and  two  and  a  half  years 
old — and  invited  the  children  of  my  neighbors.  Some 
came  upon  the  arms  of  their  mothers ;  others  could  al- 
ready walk  without  assistance.  These  children,  the  oldest 
only  six  years  old,  I  took  upon  a  hill  above  the  city  of 
Neufchatel,  and  there  showed  the  magnificent  peaks  of 
the  Aljis,  and  told  them  the  names  of  those  mountains 


GEOGRAPHY.  357 

and  of  the  beautiful  lakes  opposite.  I  then  shewed  them 
the  same  things  on  a  raised  map,  and  they  immediately 
recocrnized  the  localities,  and  were  soon  able  to  do  the 
same  on  an  ordinary  maj).  From  that  day  Geogra])hy 
Avas  no  longer  a  dry  study,  but  a  desirable  part  of  theii 
education." 

There  is  no  doubt  that  for  beginners  the  synthetic  plan 
of  teaching  is  much  the  better,  while  for  advanced  teach- 
ing the  analytic  is  preferable,  though  the  two  should  be 
combined.  The  synthetic  plan  should  be  employed  at 
least  until  the  learner  is  familiar  with  the  ordinary  geo- 
graphical terms  and  their  meaning,  in  order  that  he  may 
study  all  portions  of  Descriptive  Geography  intelligently. 

The  Plan  of  Teaching. 

For  convenience,  the  subject  of  Descriptive  Geography 
may  be  divided  into  Primary  and  Advanced. 

The  elementary  or  primary  course  includes  that  part 
of  the  subject  which  ])resents  the  fundamental  truths 
and  the  chief  terms  of  the  science.  It  embraces  several 
stages,  as  follows : 

1.  The  Perceptive  Stage,  in  which  pupils  observe  facts 
for  themselves. 

2.  The  Conceptive  Stage,  in  which  ideas  of  geographical 
facts  are  formed  from  the  pupils'  knowledge  of  similar 
facts. 

8.  The  Explanatory  Stage,  in  which  the  child  is  made 
to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  geographical  facts  through  ex- 
planations and  illustrations. 

The  Perceptive  Stage. — The  first  step  in  the  synthetic 
-method  of  teaching  Geography  is  to  acquaint  the  learner 


358  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

with  such  geographical  facts  as  he  can  observe  for  liimself. 
Many  of  these  facts  have  been  long  familiar  to  him,  and 
they  will  be  all  the  more  interesting  when  he  finds  that 
they  constitute  a  part  of  the  new  science  which  he  is 
about  to  study. 

Lessons. — These  object-lessons — for  they  are  properly 
such — may  include  simply  lessons  on  the  divisions  of 
land,  as  hills,  valleys,  plains,  islands,  etc.;  also,  lessons 
on  the  divisions  of  water,  as  spring^;,  ponds,  bi'ooks, 
creeks,  and  rivers.  If  a  more  extended  course  of  les- 
sons is  thought  desirable,  it  may  be  made  to  include 
lessons  on  animals,  both  wild  and  domestic,  lessons  on 
plants,  lessons  on  minerals,  lessons  on  the  atmosphere, 
lessons  on  people,  lessons  on  soil. 

The  Method. — In  teaching  by  this  ]->lan  much  of  the 
instruction  must  nece.^.sarily  be  oral  and  all  of  it  con- 
crete. Many  of  the  divisions  of  land  can  rcadilv  be 
seen  from  the  school-room  door.  The  same  is  true  of 
divisions  of  water.  AVhere  this  is  the  case,  it  is  folly  to 
waste  time  in  taking  pupils  away  fi'om  the  school-house 
to  learn  thinirs  which  thev  alreadv  know.  Most  of  the 
pupils,  for  instance,  know  a  hill,  a  valley,  a  brook,  a 
creek,  and  other  objects  to  be  found  in  their  own  neidi- 
borhood.  To  take  pupils  out  of  doors  to  look  at  these 
objects  that  are  entirely  familiar  to  them  is  therefore 
useless  in  teaching.  It  is  necessary  to  have  the  children 
apply  their  power  of  observation  only  where  the  object  is 
not  familiar.  For  example,  the  pupil  may  frequently  have 
noticed  two  bodies  of  land  connected  by  a  narrow  por- 
tion, and  yet  he  may  not  know  that  such  a  portion  of 
laud  is  called  an  isthmus.  He  may  also  frequently  have 
Been  points  of  land  projecting  into  the  water,  and  yet 


GEOGRAPHY.  359 

he  may  not  know  that  such  a  point  of  land  is  called 
a  cape.  These  are  some  of  the  terms,  tlierefore,  which 
he  should  learn  by  this  perceptive  process. 

The  Moulding-hoard. — What  is  known  as  the  mould- 
ing-board or  moulding-pan  will  prove  specially  useful  in 
connection  with  lessons  given  during  the  perceptive 
stage.  A  broad,  shallow  ])an  in  which  is  placed  some 
clay  is  a  very  valuable  and  convenient  piece  of  apparatus. 
The  clay  may  be  moulded  into  hills,  valleys,  islands, 
capes,  isthmuses,  and  the  like;  and  around  these  water 
may  be  poured  to  form  straits,  bays,  and  streams.  The 
student  not  only  defines  a  term,  but  he  is  enabled  here 
to  show,  by  moulding  a  portion  of  the  clay  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  give  a  practical  illustration,  that  he  also 
understands  it. 

2.  The  Conceptive  Stage.— The  child  having  learned 
many  geogra])hical  facts  through  the  process  of  observa- 
tion or  by  the  faculty  of  perception,  will  be  enabled  to 
comprehend  many  others  which  it  is  not  jwssible  to 
reach  through  observation.  Of  these  it  can  form  ideas 
only  through  the  process  of  conception.  The  })roccss 
of  perception  thus  becomes  necessary  to  the  process  of 
conception.  AVe  learn  the  unknown  only  as  we  are  able 
to  comprehend  it  through  a  comparison  with  the  known. 
Thus,  throuo;h  our  knowlcdire  of  a  hill  we  mav  form  an 
i<lea  of  a  mountain,  or  through  our  knowledge  of  a  pond 
we  may  form  an  idea  of  a  lake. 

Lessons. — The  lessons  in  this  stage  will  include  all 
ol)jects  with  which  the  pu])il  is  not  supposed  to  be 
familiar.  Lessons  on  land  will  include  plains,  deserts, 
prairies,   mountains,   table -lands,   volcanoes,   continents. 


SGO  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

Lessons  on  water  -will  include  gulfs,  straits,  channels, 
seas,  bays,  lakes,  and  oceans.  Ijcssons  on  animals  will 
include  such  animals  as  tigers,  lions,  and  others  not 
familiar  to  the  chihl.  Lessons  on  plants  should  include 
those  Mdiich  are  most  useful  and  interesting,  as  the  date 
palm,  the  orange  tree,  the  coffee-plant,  the  tea-plant, 
the  sugar-cane,  the  cotton-plant,  the  bread-fruit  tree,  and 
others.  Lessons  on  people  should  include  those  present- 
ing some  striking  characteristics,  as  the  Esquimaux,  with 
their  dogs,  their  sledges,  and  their  huts  of  snow;  the 
Arabs,  witli  their  horses  and  their  tent-life;  tlie  Indians, 
with  their  wigwams  and  their  love  for  the  chase ;  the 
Chinese,  with  their  peculiarities  of  dress  and  food;  the 
Hindoos,  with  their  castes  and  their  modes  of  worship; 
the  Sandwich  Islanders,  with  their  aquatic  sports. 

The  Method.— In  pursuing  this  plan  the  teacher  must 
begin  with  what  the  pupil  knows,  and  by  short  steps  lead 
him  to  form  an  idea  of  the  unknown.  Thus,  he  may  beo-in 
with  the  idea  of  a  pond  or  a  mill-dam  which  is  already 
known  to  the  cliild.  Let  him  now  think  of  another 
pond  so  wide  that  he  cannot  see  from  one  side  to  the 
other,  and  he  will  have  the  conception  of  a  lake.  Simi- 
larly, let  him  stand  on  a  level  piece  of  ground  and  then 
imagine  a  simihar  level  piece  of  ground  covered  with 
tall  grass,  and  so  wide  and  so  lono-  that  he  cannot  see 
where  it  ends,  and  he  will  form  an  idea  of  a  prairie. 
In  the  same  w^ay  he  may  gain  the  conception  of  a  moun- 
tain from  a  hill,  a  volcano  from  a  mountain,  a  desert  from 
a  patch  of  sand,  or  a  bay  from  a  curve  in  the  bank  of  a 
creek.  The  same  plan  may  be  followed  in  giving  the 
child  a  knoAvledge  of  the  various  peoples  of  tlie  earth, 
the  varieties  of  animals,  plants,  fruits,  and  so  on,  all  of 


GEOGRAPHY.  3G1 

M'hich  arc  beyond  tlie  reacli  of  Its  oUscrvation.  It  ig 
true,  mucli  of  this  knowledge  wlW  he  of  a  fragmentary 
character,  but  it  will  serve  to  awaken  such  an  interest  in 
both  Geography  and  History  as  will  make  the  pupils 
eager  to  pursue  the  study  of  both  sciences. 

3.  The  Explanatory  Stage.— In  this  stage,  which  follows 
closely  upon  the  Perceptive  and  the  Conceptive,  a  knowl- 
edge of  geographical  facts  and  geographical  terms  is  con- 
veyed to  the  learner  partly  by  explanations  and  partly 
by  illustrations.  The  method  is,  to  a  great  extent, 
objective. 

Lessons. — These  include  such  of  the  astronomical  fea- 
tures of  the  science  as  the  pupil  is  able  to  comprehend. 
They  consist  of  lessons  on  the  form  of  the  earth,  the 
motions  of  the  earth,  the  cause  of  day  and  night,  the 
cause  of  the  change  of  seasons,  latitude  and  longitude, 
the  circles  (including  the  tropics,  the  equator,  the  polai 
circles),  and  the  zones  or  belts  bounded  by  these  circles. 

The  Method.— At  this  stage  of  the  pupil's  progress  he 
should  be  made  acquainted  with  the  globe.  All  the 
usual  astronomical  facts  taught  in  connection  with  Geog- 
raphy may  be  taught  in  connection  with  this  apparatus. 

In  teaching  the  form  of  the  earth  by  means  of  a  globe 
some  of  the  proofs  that  the  earth  is  round  may  also  be 
taught,  as  the  approach  of  a  ship  from  sea  and  the 
shadow  of  the  earth  on  the  moon  during  an  eclipse. 

In  teaching  the  equator,  the  tropics,  and  the  jpolar  cir- 
cles, the  best  plan  is  to  call  attention  to  these  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  globe,  and  at  the  same  time  ex])lain  why  the 
polar  circles  and  the  tropics  are  located  as  they  are.  In 
connection  with  these  circles  the  zones  also  may  be  taught, 


3G2  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

and  with  tliem  sometliing  of  the  nature  of  the  phmts  and 
animals  found  in  each  of  the  zones.  Interestino-  anec- 
dotes  or  incidents  of  travel  might  be  related,  particularly 
in  connection  with  the  Frio;Id  zones  or  with  the  Torrid. 

In  teaching  latitude  and  loncjitu<h  the  pupil  may  be 
tautjht  to  reckon  the  latitude  and  the  lon^ritude  of 
various  places.  He  should  at  the  same  time  l)e  required 
to  locate  the  different  places  whose  latitude  and  longitude 
are  named  to  liim.  These  two  subjects  should  always,  if 
jiossible,  be  taught  in  connection  with  a  globe,  in  order 
that  pupils  may  form  no  incorrect  conceptions  with  re- 
gard to  them. 

In  illustrating  the  motions  of  the  earth  it  will  be  easy 
to  teach  the  cause  of  dav  and  nio;ht,  and  with  it  sunrise 
and  sunset.  The  cause  of  the  change  of  seasons  may 
also  be  taught  readily  by  holding  the  globe  in  the 
proper  position,  inclined  23^  degrees,  and  then  moving 
it  around  some  stationary  object  representing  the  sun. 
In  the  absence  of  a  globe,  a  pumpkin  or  an  apple  may 
be  used  to  represent  the  earth,  and  a  lighted  candle  or 
a  lamp  the  sun. 

The  Globe. — The  globe  is  an  important  piece  of  school 
apparatus,  and  school  officers  should  see  that  every  school 
in  which  Geography  is  taught  is  supplied  with  one.  Many 
teachers,  however,  find  themselves  compelled  to  teach  the 
astronomical  facts  of  Geo2;raphv  without  a  globe.  Patent 
globes  are  expensive,  and  teacliers  find  it  beyond  their 
power  to  secure  these.  Some  manufacturing  companies 
enclose  their  goods  in  globes,  which  when  emptied  of 
their  contents  answer  very  well  as  a  substitute  for  a 
more  expensive  globe. 


GEOGRAPHY.  363 

Maps  and  Map-Drawing.— One  of  the  first  steps  in 
Priuuuy  Geography  is  that  of  teacliing  location  and 
direction.  Pupils  should  first  be  taught  the  ])oints  of 
tiie  compass— north,  east,  soutli,  west— from  the  school- 
house.  This  may  be  done  readily  by  the  old-time 
juethod,  of  having  the  learner  face  to  the  north.  Pie 
can  do  this  best  by  locating  the  place  of  sunrise  in  the 
east  and  sunset  in  the  west.  Practical  questions  should 
then  be  given  to  him,  asking  the  direction  of  certain 
points  or  localities,  until  he  can  tell  readily  in  what 
direction  any  known  point  is  from  the  school-house  or 
from  his  home. 

Some  teachers  draw  a  north-and-south  line  on  the 
school-room  floor,  and,  crossing  this  at  right  angles,  an 
east-and-west  line.  This  may  be  of  use  to  beginners, 
but  it  ought  to  require  a  very  short  time  for  the  jnipil 
to  learn  that  the  sun  rises  in  the  east  and  sets  in  the 
M-est,  and  apply  this  in  learning  absolute  directions. 

In  learning  relative  directions,  if  the  ])upil  be  re- 
quired simply  to  place  the  map  before  him  and  remem- 
ber, as  before,  that  the  right  hand  is  east  and  the  left 
hand  west,  it  will  take  but  a  short  time  for  him  to  learn 
that  the  top  of  the  map  is  north  and  the  bottom  south. 
Ko  special  device  or  direction  need  be  given  to  teach 
this  fact.  Few  pupils  would  be  so  stu[)id  as  not  to 
understand  it  at  once.  In  order  to  impress  the  fact  on 
the  pupil's  mind  let  him  give  both  the  absolute  and  the 
relative  direction.  Thus,  when  he  tells  that  Maryland 
is  south  of  Pennsylvania  let- him  also  be  asked  to  point 
to  the  direction  of  ]\[aryland.  If  he  states  that  some 
city  is  "a  little  below  east"  of  his  home,  let  him  point 
a  little  south  of  east  to  indicate  the  exact  direction.     In 


364  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

this  way  relative  and  absolute  direction  will  both  be- 
come readily  understood. 

Making  Maps. — As  soon  as  the  pupil  has  learned  to 
distins^uish  both  absolute  and  relative  direction  heshoidd 
be  taught  to  prepare  maps  of  the  school -grounds,  the 
neighborhood,  etc.,  locating  each  farm-house  or  residence, 
the  roads  or  streets,  the  neighboring  streams,  etc.  This 
proce&s  of  map-construction  should  then  continue  all 
through  the  course  as  the  teacher  proceeds  from  divis- 
ion to  division. 

The  steps  in  map-drawing  are  three  in  number.  The 
first  efforts  of  the  learner  should  be  to  copy  from  the 
open  book,  making  the  map  of  the  same  size  as  the 
copy.  The  next  efforts  should  be  to  enlarge  and  draw 
the  map  either  on  paper  or  on  the  blackboard.  Lastly, 
the  pupil  should  be  required  to  reproduce  the  map  from 
memory. 

In  drawing  maps  the  teacher  must  not  expect  the  first 
efforts  from  memory  to  be  Avorks  of  great  merit.  A 
simple  outline  with  a  few  of  only  the  most  important 
features  should  be  required.  These  are  all  that  is  neces- 
sary to  show  that  the  pupil's  general  idea  is  correct. 

Pupils  should  be  able  to  locate  on  outline  maps  the 
most  important  objects,  as  ranges  of  mountains,  bays, 
lakes,  the  chief  cities,  and  so  on,  but  not  every  insig- 
nificant stream  or  town  printed  in  the  atlas. 

Globe-Lessons. — Globes  are  not  designed  to  teach  sim- 
ply  the  sha{)e  of  the  earth  and  the  motions  of  that 
planet.  Various  interesting  exercises  on  the  globe  may 
be  conducted  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  the  study  of 
Geography  a  pleasure  to  children.     A  few  lessons  are 


GEOGRAPHY.  365 

indicated  here;  the  earnest  teacher  will  be  able  to  orig- 
inate many  others  equally  valuable. 

The  teacher  places  the  globe  before  his  pupils,  and 
permits  them  to  step  forward  one  at  a  time  and  follow 
his  directions.  If  one  fails  to  answer  correctly,  another 
is  called  to  take  his  place,  and  so  the  exercise  proceeds, 
the  teacher  telling  nothing  that  the  pupils  can  discover 
for  themselves. 

Lesson  1. 

1.  What  shape  is  the  globe? 

2.  What  shape  is  the  earth  ? 

3.  Point  out  the  parts  of  the  globe  that  represent 
land. 

4.  Point  out  the  parts  that  represent  water. 

5.  Put  your  finger  on  the  most  northerly  part  of  the 
globe  ;  what  is  that  poinji  called  ? 

6.  Put  your  finger  on  the  most  southerly  part  of  the 
globe ;  what  is  that  point  called  ? 

7.  Place  your  finger  halfway  between  tiie  North  Pole 
and  the  South  Pole  and  turn  the  globe ;  what  line  does 
the  finsjer  seem  to  follow? 

8.  Which  is  the  greater,  the  land-surface  or  the  water- 
surface  ? 

9.  Where  is  the  most  land-surface  found,  north  or  south 
of  the  equator  ? 

10.  AVhere  is  the  most  water-surface  found? 

Lesson  2. 

1.  In  M-hat  direction  is  the  North  Pole  from  llic 
equator  ? 

2.  In  what  direction  is  the  South  Pole  from  tlie 
equator  ? 


366  METHODS   OF    TEACniNG. 

3.  Point  to  North  America. 

4.  Point  to  South  America. 

5.  In  what  direction  is  North  America  from  South 
America  ? 

6.  Point  to  Europe.  In  what  direction  is  Europe  from 
Nortli  America? 

7.  Point  to  Asia.  In  what  direction  is  Asia  from 
EuroDe? 

8.  Point  to  Africa.  In  Avhat  direction  is  Africa  from 
Europe  ? 

9.  In  what  direction  is  Africa  from  South  America? 

10.  In  what  direction  is  Europe  from  Asia? 

In  a  similar  manner  globe-lessons  may  be  conducted 
on  the  following  topics:  Seas,  mountain-ranges,  oceans, 
rivers,  important  cities,  the  circles,  latitude  and  longitude,  the 
zones,  the  'principal  islands,  and  other  important  topics. 

Map-Lessons. — All  important  descriptions  should  have 
their  location  indicated.  The  teacher  should  require  the 
pupil  to  point  out  on  the  map  every  city,  State,  country, 
or  natural  division  that  he  attempts  to  describe.  The 
method  may  be  varied  from  time  to  time,  both  to  pre- 
serve interest  and  to  make  the  pupil's  knowledge  certain. 
One  pupil  may  point  to  localities  and  name  them  in  order; 
or  he  may  point  to  them  and  have  some  other  pupil  name 
them ;  or  he  may  point  to  the  localities  as  called  for  by 
the  teacher  or  some  member  of  the  class ;  or  the  class 
may  name  as  the  teacher  points;  or,  best  of  all,  the 
teacher  may  point  to  some  locality,  and,  calling  upon 
some  pupil,  have  the  latter  not  only  name  the  object,  but 
also  state  some  fact  in  connection  with  it.  .  By  this  plan 


GEOGRAPHY.  307 

the  location  and  the  interesting  facts  connected  with  any 
city,  State,  river,  etc.  are  associated,  and  in  the  future  each 
aids  in  recalling  the  other. 

Locating  Current  Events. — The  teacher  should  give  his 
pupils  frequent  exercises  in  locating  current  events.  INIost 
pupils  learn  more  or  less  of  the  history  of  current  events 
from  the  daily  and  the  weekly  newspapers,  and  they 
should  be  encouraged  to  locate  all  events  of  general 
interest  on  the  map.  This  will  not  only  help  them  to 
remember  the  fact,  but  it  will  also  lead  them  to  associate 
History  and  Geography,  and  thus  make  each  a  more  in- 
teresting study. 

Preparation  of  Map-Lessons. — In  the  preparation  of  the 
first  map-lessons  the  advance  lesson  should  be  read  in 
class  by  the  teacher,  and  the  pupil  be  j^ermitted  to  an- 
swer with  open  book.  If  the  pupil  is  not  able  to  find 
the  locality  with  reasonable  effort,  the  teacher  should 
assist  him.  There  is  no  discipline  afforded  in  having 
a  pupil  search  for  ten  minutes  or  more  in  his  efforts  to 
discover  some  unimportant  cape  or  insignificant  island. 
After  having  gone  over  the  lesson  with  the  pupil,  the 
teacher  may  select  the  important  parts  and  have  the 
pupils  prepare  these  thoroughly  to  be  recited  from 
memory  at  the  next  recitation. 

Definitions. — Pupils  should  not  be  permitted  to  give 
definitions  without  showing  that  they  fully  understand 
Ihem.  Many  a  child  has  gone  through  the  process  of 
defining  an  uland  repeatedly,  as  "A  body  of  land  en- 
tirely surrounded  by  w^ater,"  without  for  a  moment  hav- 
ing any  correct  conception  of  the  meaning  of  either  of 
the  words  enfirehj  or  surrounded.     To  such  a  child  the 


368  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

definition  means  nothing.  It  is  the  clear  duty  of  the 
teacher  to  see  that  the  learner  lias  a  definite  idea  of  what 
is  naeant,  and  not  that  he  is  able  only  to  memorize  and 
repeat  the  words. 

Added  Facts. — The  best  teachers  of  Geography,  par- 
ticularly in  presenting  the  science  to  primary  pupils,  as 
a  rule,  are  those  who  add  most  interesting  facts  to  those 
communicated  by  the  textbook.  The  teacher  should 
never  rest  satisfied  with  the  mere  statements  of  the  text- 
book. These  are  necessarily  brief.  Many  interesting 
liistorical  incidents,  reminiscences  of  travel,  or  facts  in 
natural  history  may  be  connected  with  the  bare  geograph- 
ical details  of  most  localities  in  such  a  way  as  to  make 
the  science  a  charming  as  well  as  an  interesting  study 
for  all  pupils. 

GeograpMcal  Outlines. — It  is  important  that  pupils  be 
able  to  classify  their  knowledge  Mith  reference  to  any 
State  or  country.  Geographical  outlines  will  be  found 
convenient  for  this  purpose.  These  will  not  only  lead 
the  pupils  to  systematize  their  knowledge  as  derived 
from  individual  textbooks,  but  they  will  also  encourage 
the  pupils  to  search  for  additional  facts,  and  thus  broaden 
their  knowledge  of  the  science. 

The  following  form  is  meant  simply  to  be  suggestive ; 
it  may  be  used  as  it  stands  or  it  may  be  greatly  condensed^ 
as  the  teacher  may  jirefer: 

1.  Latitude. 

1.  Location.  ...  -I  2.  Loiiiritiide. 

0.  With  itlcreuce  to  other  bodies  of  land  or  water. 

1.  Area. 

2.  Size {  2.  Conipp.rative. 

3.  Leujrth  and  breadth.  - 


GEOGRAPHY. 


369 


3.  Outlino. 


4.  Natural  Features. 


5.  Productions. 


6.  People. 


'  1.  Indentations. 

2.  Projections. . , 

3.  Connections, . 

4.  Islands 


1.  Land. 


2.  Water .  . 

3.  Climate. 


a.  Seas, 
h.  Gulfs, 

c.  Estuaries, 

d.  Deltas. 
a.  Capes, 

6.  Peninsulas. 

a.  Isthmuses, 

b.  Straits. 

a.  Siuple, 

b.  Groups. 

a.  Mountains,  {^^^'£^ 

b.  Plateaus, 

c.  Plaius  and  valleys, 

d.  Water-slieds. 

a.  Rivers, 

b.  Lakes. 

.  .  .  Pheuomena,  etc. 


1.  Natural.  . 

2.  Artificial. 


1.  Races. 


«.  Animal, 

b.  Vegetable, 

c.  Mineral. 

a.  Animal, 

b.  Yegctat)l«, 

c.  General  Manufactures 

a.  Civilized, 
6.  Nomadic, 
c.  Savage. 


2.  Appearance, 

3.  Customs, 

4.  Pursuits,  etc., 

5.  Number. 


7.  Enterprises ■ 


'  1.  Cities  and  Towns, 

2.  Commerce, 

3.  Public  Works, 

4.  Manufacturing, 
5._  Railroads, 

6.'  General  Improvements, 


8.  Institutions.  . . 
9   Miscellaneous. 


r  1.  Government. 

-!   2.  Education. . . 
[  3.  Religion, 


a.  Republican, 
6.  Jlonarchical. 
n.  Public, 

b.  Private. 


Suggestions  on  Teaching  Geography. 
1.  First   Lessons.— The    first    lesson.s   iu   Geography 
Bhould   be   oral,  antl   facts    should   be  presented    before 
defiuitions  and  causes. 


24 


370  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

2.  Descriptions  and  Locations. — DescriptioDs  and  loca- 
tions slioukl  be  associated.  Interestins:  facts  in  conuec- 
tion  with  every  place  stndied  should,  if  possible,  be 
given  to  the  child.  Fewer  locations  if  possible,  and 
more  important  facts,  should  be  the  aim. 

3.  History  and  Geography.— These  should  be  made  to 
sui)plement  each  other.  Every  important  location 
should  have  connected  with  it  interesting:  and  strikinc' 
historical  associations  if  such  exist.  Thus  by  the  law 
of  association  both  will  be  remembered.  Boston  recalls 
the  Tea- Party;  Independence  Hall,  Philadelphia,  the 
Declaration  of  Independence;  Florida,  the  visionary 
dreams  of  Ponce  de  Leon ;  St.  Helena,  the  banishment 
of  Na]>oleon. 

4.  Important  Facts. — Teach  only  the  most  important 
facts  to  beginners.  Many  of  the  locations  of  the  smaller 
towns,  rivers,  etc.,  together  with  the  lengths  of  rivers, 
are  quite  as  ])rofital)ly  forgotten  as  remembered. 

5.  The  Textbook. — Do  not  continue  oral  instruction  in 
Geography  beyond  the  point  where  a  pupil  can  profitably 
use  a  textbook.  While  it  is  true  that  much  of  the  inter- 
esting j)art  of  Primary  Geography  may  be  presented  oral  ly, 
the  pupil  needs  the  discij)line  of  study  quite  as  much  as 
he  needs  the  geographical  facts,  and  the  knowledge  ac- 
quired by  his  own  efforts  will  prove  doubly  valuable. 

6.  Memorizing. — Pupils  should  not  be  required  to 
memorize  descriptions  verbatim.  If  they  are  able  to 
relate  the  substance  of  these  descriptions  in  their  own 
words,  it  is  much  better.  They  should  even  be  encour- 
aged to  go  beyond  the  textbook  and  add  facts  as  they 
iiave  gleaned  them  from  other  textbooks  or  from  news- 
papers and    magazines.     Should   the  pupils  in  reciting 


GEOGRAPHY.  371 

oinit  anything  of  importance,  this  may  be  brought  out 
by  the  jiulicious  questioning  of  the  teacher. 

7.  Local  Geography. — Make  pupils  tlioroughly  familiar 
with  the  crcoorraphv  of  their  homes,  and  connect  thir  elc- 
mentary  knowledge  with  tlie  first  lessons  of  the  text- 
book. 

8.  Globe-Lessons. — Give  considerable  prominence  to 
globe-lessons  until  pupils  can  locate  readily  and  tell 
direction  on  the  surface  of  the  globe,  as  well  as  explain 
the  motions  of  the  eart]i,aud  acquire  other  knowledge  to 
be  gleaned  only  by  the  use  of  the  globe. 

9.  The  Method  of  Teaching. — The  synthetic  method  of 
teaching  Geography  is  necessarily  limited  in  its  applicxi- 
tion.  The  local  objects  and  divisions,  properly  the  ma- 
terial of  perception,  will  soon  be  exhausted,  and  it  will 
then  be  found  that  it  is  more  profitable  to  study  the 
world  as  a  whole,  and  then,  avoiding  details,  proceed  to 
the  more  important  divisions. 

10.  The  Main  Facts. — Fix  upon  the  main  facts  to  be 
learned  ;  mark  these  in  the  textbook,  and  then  proceed 
to  give  vnur  pupils  at  first  only  a  general  knowledge  of 
Geoo-raphv,  without  crowding  their  minds  with  that  which 
will  prove  useless  and  burdensome.  Some  prominent  edu- 
cational writers  urge  that  at  least  three-fourths  of  the  ordi- 
nary textbook  may  be  discarded  as  worthless. 

11.  State  Geography. — Have  pupils  study  their  own 
State  in  detail.  State  geography  is  important  to  every 
one.  But  very  little  attention  need  be  given  to  the  de- 
tails of  other  States.  Many  of  the  facts  set  forth  are 
important  only  to  the  residents  of  those  States.  The 
general  facts  respecting  all  the  States,  however,  should 
be  carcfnllv  tau";ht. 


372  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

12.  Reviews. — Give  frequent  reviews  on  the  main  out- 
lines of  the  study  until  these  are  firmly  impressed  on  the 
mind  of  the  learner. 

13.  Origin  and  Etymology  of  Names. — Associate  with 
names  their  origin  and  etymology  wherever  it  is  possible 
to  do  so.  Thus,  the  signification  of  Nova  Scotia  ("  2sew 
Scotland"),  Newfoundland  ("new  found  land,"  the  whole 
territory  from  Labrador  to  the  Chesapeake  being  ciilled 
neio  found  land  bv  the  Cabots  when  thev  first  discovered 
it),  Erie  (*' wild  cat"),  Monongahela  ("the  banks  come 
tumbling  down"),  and  many  other  names,  both  sug- 
gestive and  interesting,  may  be  taught. 

14.  Geographical  Affixes. — Show  that  both  geographical 
prefixes  and  geographical  suffixes,  -with  their  meanings, 
may  be  made  interesting  to  pupils.  Thus,  when  the 
child  learns  that  ton  means  a  town;  w'lch  or  wici:,  a 
village;  by,  a  town;  kill,  a  creek;  sierra,  a  saw;  rio,  a 
river;  belle,  bel,  or  beaxi,  beautiful ;  sirai  or  stras,  a  street, 
— the  names  in  which  these  affixes  are  found  become  to 
him  doubly  interesting,  and  with  very  little  effort  he  may 
be  led  to  study  names  and  their  meaning  for  himself. 

15.  Location  by  Latitude  and  Longitude, — A  valuable 
exercise  is  that  of  having  pupils  locate  places  on  either 
the  map  or  the  globe,  the  teacher  dictating  the  latitude 
and  the  longitude  only.  Thus,  the  teacher  may  place 
on  the  blackboard  the  latitude  and  the  longitude,  as  fol- 
lows, and  have  the  pupils  name  the  localities  at  tlie  next 
recitation  : 

LnUtude,.  Lovgifiide. 

591°  >;.  31°  E. 

53°  K  6°  AV. 

23°  S.  43°  W. 

30°  N.  90°  W. 


GEOGRAPHY.  373 

An  equally  valuable  exercise  is  that  of  having  the 
pupils  name  all  the  cities  or  countries  on  or  near  a 
certain  parallel  or  on  or  near  a  given  meridian. 

16.  The  Classification  of  Geogi'aphical  Facts. — Let  pupils 
be  trained  to  classify  geographical  facts  as  they  pi'oceed. 
Thus,  let  them  be  required  to  tell  not  only  what  certain 
countries  produce,  but  also  from  what  countries  certain 
products  may  be  obtained.  Let  them  name  a  product 
and  locate  all  the  countries  producing  it.  In  this  man- 
ner, they  may  locate  the  countries  producing  rice;  also 
those  producing  spices,  silks,  tea,  coffee,  wine,  oranges, 
coal,  coal  oil,  salt,  etc.  Let  them  also  tell  in  what  coun- 
tries certain  animals  are  found,  as  the  deer,  the  bear,  the 
wolf,  the  tiger,  the  elephant,  and  so  on.  This  will  tend 
to  make  their  knowledge  both  broad  and  accurate. 

17.  Voyages. — Let  pupils  describe  imaginary  voyages 
or  travels,  starting  at  a  certain  point,  and  telling  of  the 
important  places  passed  on  the  route,  with  a  brief  de- 
scription or  interesting  incident  relative  to  each,  and 
naming  the  waters  or  the  countries  through  which  tiiey 
pass. 

18.  Comparisons. — Have  pupils  compare  countries  and 
bodies  of  water  to  objects  whose  outlines  they  resemble; 
thus,  Italy  to  a  boot.  Lake  Erie  to  a  whale,  the  Sea  of 
Japan  to  a  rabbit. 

Kequire  them  also  to  make  comparisons  of  size,  as 
Arabia  with  the  United  States,  England  with  Pennsyl- 
vania, Texas  with  Rhode  Island ;  or  have  them  select 
divisions  of  nearly  equal  extent,  as  Indiana  and  Ireland, 
Illinois  and  England. 

19.  Tracing-Lessons. — Pupils  may  be  taught  to  remem- 
ber the  locality  of  places  by  means  of  tracing-lessons. 


374  METHODS   OF    TEACITIXG. 

Tluis,  let  them  start  at  any  point  and  follov,  a  river  or 
a  coast-line,  and  name  every  important  j)lace  as  they 
resell  it.  The  river  Mississijipi  or  tlie  eastern  coast- 
line of  the  United  States  wouKl  prove  a  vahiable  line 
of  travel.  Lessons  of  this  kind  tend  to  cultivate  a 
habit  of  close  observation.  If  the  pu])il  could  tell 
something  about  each  important  place  as'  he  names  it, 
the  lesson  mi^-ht  be  made  still  more  interestinir.  A  full 
course  of  these  tracing-lessons  would  give  ])upils  a  very 
full  knowledge  of  the  local  geography  of  any  country. 

20.  Newspapers. — Newspapers  shoidd  be  brought  into 
the  school-room  occasionally,  when  the  places  mentioned 
in  the  news  department,  both  home  and  foreign,  may  with 
profit  be  referred  to  the  pupils  for  location. 

21.  Compositions.— It  will  be  found  a  pleasant  exercise 
to  have  pupils  sometimes  write  a  short  comi)osition  de- 
scribing the  country  which  they  have  studied.  At  such 
times  encourage  them  to  add  anything  of  interest  that 
they  may  be  able  to  glean  from  other  sources  than  the 
textbook. 

22.  Description. — The  monotony  of  the  daily  recitation 
may  be  varied  by  reading  to  the  school  from  magazines, 
newspa])ers,  or  books  of  travel  vivid  descriptions  of  va'ri- 
ous  localities;  also,  by  showing  to  the  class  pictures  of 
natural  scenery  as  found  in  books,  illustrated  newspapers, 
and  magazines. 

23.  Geogi^apMcal  Cards. — Where  the  real  objects  ca-nnot 
be  observed  by  children,  geographical  cards  will  be  found 
of  great  value.  These  illustrate  by  means  of  engravings 
the  chief  geographical  terms,  as  isthmus,  sea,  island,  etc. 

24.  Blackboard  Drawing. — Outline  map-drawing  on  the 
blackboard  is  in  general  more  useful  than  more  elaborate 


GEOGRAPHY, 


375 


work  with  pen  or  pencil.  Tlie  teacher  wlio  makes  a  hobby 
of  map-drawing  wastes  a  great  deal  of  time  and  kabor. 
Tlie  objects  of  map-drawing,  training  the  pupils  to  re- 
produce outlines  and  locate  readily,  should  always  be 
kcj)t  in  mind. 

25.  Map-Drawing  by  Latitude  and  Longitude. — The 
drawino;  of  outlines  and  the  location  of  important 
places  and  geographical  divisions  by  the  parallels  and 
meridians  will  be  found  specially  useful  where  the  map 
of  any  political  division,  from  a  State  upward,  is  to  be 
constructed. 

26.  Exhibition  Maps. — The  best  maps  should  be  se- 
lected from  the  work  of  the  i)upils  and  be  placed  on 
the  wall.  This  will  prove  a  valuable  incentive  for  pupils 
to  do  their  best.  Some  of  the  best  maps  drawn  on  the 
board  may  also  be  permitted  to  remain  for  a  day  or  two, 
unless  the  board-surface  is  needed  for  other  purposes. 

27.  Sectional  Maps. — These  are  valuable  in  teaching 
pupils  the  location  of  the  various  divisions.  It  would 
be  well  if  every  pupil  were  required  to  draw  by  exact 
measurement  a  county  map  of  his  own  State,  then  paste 
it  on  card-board  and  cut  it  into  sections,  each  section  to 
contain  a  single  county.  These  .sections  he  should  be 
required  to  place  in  their  proper  positions  again.  lu 
a  short  time  he  will  become  quite  expert  in  locating 
every  county.  The  same  plan  might  be  pursued  with 
reference  to  a  State  map  of  the  United  States  and  the 
township  map  of  his  own  county. 

28.  Important  Maps. — It  would  be  well  if  the  puj^il 
were  required  to  draw  either  on  the  blackboard  or  on 
paper  a  map  of  the  United  States,  also  a  map  of  his  own 
county  and  State,  at  least  once  a  year. 


376  METHODS   OF    TEACHING. 

29.  Open  Maps. — When  outline  maps  are  furnished  for 
tlie  schools  the  teacher  should  see  that  they  are  kept  open, 
or  at  least  a  portion  of  them.  Many  a  pupil  learns  quite 
as  much  Geography  from  the  open  maps  before  him, 
■where  he  may  see  and  examine  them  at  all  times,  as  he 
does  from  the  formal  recitation. 

30.  Geograpliy-Matches. — Much  interest  maybe  aroused 
by  means  of  Geography-matches.  The  teacher  will  be  able 
to  devise  various  ways  of  conducting  these,  and  the  ques- 
tions may  vary  very  greatly.  As  an  example  an  exercise 
may  consist  of  questions  similar  to  the  following,  one 
question  being  given  to  each  pujiil  in  turn : 

Exej'cise. 

1.  Name  a  river  in  England,  and  tell  into  what  it 
flows. 

2.  Name  a  river  in  France,  and  tell  into  what  it  flows. 

3.  Name  a  river  in  E-ussia,  and  tell  into  what  it  flows. 

4.  Name  a  river  in  Italy,  and  tell  into  what  it  flows. 

5.  Name  a  sea  in  Europe,  and  locate  it. 

6.  Name  a  sea  in  Asia,  and  locate  it. 

7.  Name  a  country,  give  its  capital,  and  locate  both 
its  capital  and  its  largest  city. 

8.  Name  some  important  mineral,  and  tell  in  what 
countries  it  is  found. 

9.  Name  some  important  vegetable  production,  and 
tell  in  what  countries  it  grows. 

10.  Name  some  important  manufactured  article,  and 
tell  in  M'hat  countries  it  is  produced. 

31.  From  Facts  to  Causes. — Pupils  should,  as  far  as 
possible,  be  taught  the  causes  of  the  various  geographical 
phenomena  and  the  reasons  for  the  different  geographical 


GEOGRAPHY.  377 

facts.  It  will  be  interesting  to  tbeni  to  know  why  the 
earth  is  round,  why  it  is  slightly  flattened  at  the  poles, 
how  islands  are  formed,  how  rivers  are  formed,  Avhy  it  is 
colder  at  some  places  than  at  others  in  the  same  latitude, 
and  the  reasons  for  hundreds  of  kindred  facts.  Much 
of  the  philosophical  part  of  Geography  must  be  taught 
in  connection  with  Physical  Geograjihy,  but  many  causes 
of  interesting  geographical  phenomena  may  be  made  plain 
to  those  who  are  not  yet  prej^ared  to  pursue  the  studv  of 
Physical  Geography. 


HISTORY. 


History  is  a  narrative  of  events.  It  is  a  record  of 
the  past,  giving  the  facts  concerning  botli  nations  and 
individuals  and  showing  to  some  extent  the  causes  of 
the  ])resent  condition  of  different  nations.  History  is 
usually  considered  under  the  two  heads,  Facts  of  History 
and  the  Plulosophy  of  History.  The  former  embraces 
and  describes  the  chief  events  in  the  order  of  their 
occurrence,  together  with  sketches  of  such  individuals 
as  played  an  important  part  in  the  various  changes  as 
they  occurred;  while  the  Phih)sophy  of  History  seeks 
to  investigate  the  causes  which  have  led  to  the  various 
changes  that  have  taken  place  in  the  life  of  nations,  and 
to  infer  the  general  laws  that  are  likely  to  govern,  to  some 
extent,  the  conduct  of  nations  as  well  as  individuals,  and 
thus  mould  their  future. 

I.  Difficulties  in  the  Way  of  Teaching  History. 

One  of  the  chief  difficulties  in  connection  with  the 
teaching  of  History  is  that  Ave  have  no  means  of  prov- 
ing the  truth  of  historical  statements.  In  natural 
science  we  can  illustrate  by  means  of  apparatus ;  in 
many  other  sciences  we  can  refer  to  axioms  or  general 
definitions ;  but  in  History  we  have  nothing  to  depend 

378 


HISTORY.  379 

upon  except  the  direct  statement  of  the  liistorian.  "When 
yve  further  take  into  consideration  tlie  fact  that  histo- 
rians frequently  disagree,  together  with  the  proneness 
of  men  to  misrepresent  both  their  own  actions  and  those 
of  their  enemies,  the  proper  teaching  of  History  becomes 
a  still  more  serious  matter. 

A  second  difficulty  lies  in  tlie  fact  that  in  some  cases 
the  means  of  securing  reliable  information  as  afforded  to 
the  historian  have  been  but  limited,  and  some  supposed 
facts  of  history  are  therefore  merely  guesses,  of  whose 
truth  or  falsitv  we  know  absolutely  nothing:. 

A  third  difficulty  in  the  teaching  of  History  lies  iu 
the  nature  of  the  study  itself.  There  is  in  most  sciences 
a  relation  existing  between  the  different  parts  which 
enables  us  in  a  measure  to  systematize  the  study.  In 
History  tliis  is  not  the  case.  We  have  no  relations  here 
except  those  of  a  chronological  nature;  there  is  usually 
very  little  connection  of  events  except  in  time,  and  this 
gives  us  but  little  opportunity  to  refer  historical  facts  to 
any  laws  of  association  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  us  to 
remember. 

!!,  Methods  of  Teaching  History. 

In  the  matter  of  writing  History  there  are  two  chief 
methods.  The  first,  known  as  the  Etiinogvaphie,  is  that 
in  which  the  history  of  a  particular  nation  is  narrated 
without  reference  to  the  history  of  other  nations,  except 
so  far  as  may  be  necessary  to  illustrate  the  facts  related 
concerning  the  nation  under  discussion.  Tiie  second 
method,  known  as  the  Si/nehronidic,  relates  the  history 
of  mankind  in  eras  or  epociis,  each  nation  receiving  its 
proportionate   share  of  the  narrative  as   pertaining   to 


380  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

that  period.  For  most  students  in  History  the  ethno- 
graphic method  is  preferable,  as  the  pupil  is  enabled  to 
trace  the  history  of  a  single  nation  from  its  orio-in  to  the 
present  time  without  danger  of  confusion  of  facts. 

In  teaching  this  subject  the  history  of  one's  own 
country  should  be  the  first  considered.  The  general 
methods  which  apply  to  any  one  country  may,  however, 
be  made  to  apply  in  studying  any  other,  and  therefore 
the  following  discussion,  which  has  special  reference  to 
teaching  the  history  of  the  United  States,  is  applicable 
to  the  teaching  of  the  history  of  any  other  nation  or 
country. 

Principles. 

The  following  principles  should  govern  the  teaching 
of  H  istory  : 

1.  The  First  Steps  in  Teaching  History  should  be  in  the 
Form  of  Narrative. — The  child's  love  for  stories  mani- 
fests itself  at  a  very  early  age.  It  listens  with  absorbing 
interest  to  the  relation  of  incidents  and  events  of  a  per- 
sonal nature  as  early  as  it  is  able  to  comprehend.  The 
true  plan  of  teaching  seems  therefore  to  be  indicated  by 
the  mental  condition  of  the  learner.  This  taste  for 
narrative  should  be  gratified  by  teaching  at  first  mainly 
interesting  incidents,  even  though  the  facts  communicated 
be  of  a  fragmentary  or  disconnected  character. 

2.  Oral  Instruction  should  Precede  the  Study  of  a  Text- 
book on  History. — The  chief  thing  to  be  accomplished  at 
first  is  that  of  arousing  an  interest  on  the  part  of  the 
child.  Pupils  who  begin  the  study  of  a  textbook  with- 
out preliminary  oral  instruction  are  apt  to  memorize  the 
textbook  matter  in  order  that  they  may  recite  the  details 
verlxitim.     The  pupil  may  of  course  read  a  book  in  con- 


HISTORY.  381 

nection  with  tlie  oral  instruction  which  he  receives,  but 
he  should  not  at  first  be  permitted  to  recite  from  it.  He 
should  be  required  to  reproduce,  in  the  shape  of  short 
compositions,  what  the  teacher  has  told,  rather  than 
what  he  may  have  gleaned  from  the  book. 

3.  TJie  First  Instruction  in  History  should  be  mainly 
Biographical. — The  personal  history  of  Columbus,  his 
travels,  his  efforts  to  interest  the  different  courts  and 
kings  in  his  project  to  discover  a  new  world,  his  trials, 
his  final  discovery  of  land,  and  his  ultimate  poverty  and 
neglect,  will  all  be  interesting  to  the  child.  Thus,  also, 
the  life  and  adventures  of  Captain  John  Smith,  the 
biography  of  William  Penn  and  a  narrative  of  his 
efforts  to  establish  settlements  in  America,  the  story  of 
AVashington's  life, — all  these  will  prove  much  more 
interestinir  than  the  records  of  the  various  charters  and 
how  obtained,  or  the  wars  and  intrigues  of  the  different 
nations  for  the  purpose  of  acquiring  territory  for  the 
countries  of  the  Old   World. 

4.  The  Facts  of  History  and  the  Philosophy  of  History 
should  be  Associated. — As  soon  as  the  pupil  is  prepared 
to  understand  the  causes  which  have  led  to  certain  events 
he  should  be  tauirht  not  onlv  these,  but  also  the  results 
of  such  changes  as  have  taken  place.  A  knowledge  of 
the  facts  of  History  is  important,  but  a  knowledge  of 
the  philosophy  of  History  and  the  relation  of  results  to 
the  future  welfare  of  the  country,  is  of  vastly  greater 
importance. 

5.  Tlie  First  Teaching  of  History  should  be  Inductive. — 
The  pupil  will  naturally  be  more  easily  interested  in  the 
history  of  his  own  country  than  in  the  history  of  foreign 
countries  or  in  the  history  of  the  world  at  large.      A 


382  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

knowledge  of  the  liistory  of  one's  o\A'n  country  is  also 
more  important  to  tlie  student  than  that  of  other  coun- 
tries; and  for  this  reason  also  the  first  instruction  iu 
History  should  besrin  at  home. 

Tlie  next  countries  to  be  taught  are  those  with  which 
the  home  history  is  to  some  extent  connected,  and  from 
these  the  instruction  should  pass  to  the  world  at  large. 
At  first  only  the  most  important  and  most  interesting 
facts  need  be  tausjht.  Much  should  be  left  untau^lit 
for  the  pupil  to  acquire  for  himself.  In  no  branch  of 
study  can  the  student  do  so  much  for  himself  as  iu  the 
subject  of  History. 

6.  History  should  he  made  Intercsthiff. — The  learner 
Avho  has  once  become  interested  in  tlie  subject  of  History 
will  need  neither  urging  nor  teaching;  he  Mill  pursue 
the  study  of  History  for  the  Joye  of  the  narrative  itself. 
The  chief  work  of  the  teacher,  therefore,  lies  in  the  di- 
rection of  creating  such  an  interest  as  will  lead  the  pupil 
to  pursue  the  study  from  a  love  for  it  when  no  longer 
under  the  guidance  of  an  instructor.  "What  we  all 
remember  best  of  History  is  what  most  interested  us 
when  we  studied  the  subject;  and  for  this  reason  also 
the  teacher  should  make  special  efforts  to  render  the 
subject  interesting. 

Essentials  in  Teaching  History. 

Frimary  Histoiy. — The  method  of  teaching  primary 
History  differs  from  that  of  teach ino;  the  more  advanced 
part  of  the  subject  mainly  in  the  fact  tliat  primary  in- 
struction should  consist  as  nearly  as  j)ossible  of  stories 
and  biographical  sketches.  These  need  have  little  con- 
nection so  far  as  chronology  is  concerned.     The  less  said 


HISTORY.  383 

about  dates,  the  less  the  child's  mind  will  be  cucumbored 
with  useless  matter. 

Tlie  proper  presentation  of  primary  History  requires 
the  teacher  to  be  expert  in  reciting  narratives.  He  must 
also  have  a  thorough  knowledge  of  tlie  incidents  he  at- 
tempts to  relate,  and  be  able  to  relate  them  in  sucli  a 
Avay  as  to  attract  and  interest  his  pupils.  The  teiU'hcr's 
knowled<>-e  of  a  sintrle  textbook  will  not  prove  suffi(.'ient. 
Pie  should  be  able  to  add  much  interesting  matter,  and  be 
able  to  tell  much  that  is  not  to  be  found  in  the  ordinary 
textbook. 

Reading  Histoiy. — A  love  for  History  should  be  created 
by  placing  in  the  hands  of  pupils  such  books  as  they  will 
be  able  not  only  to  comprehend,  but  also  enjoy,  because 
of  tlie  interest  which  the  narratives  themselves  arouse. 
Among  the  works  to  be  highly  commended  are  those  of 
"Peter  Parley"  and  Charlotte  M.  Yonge,  and,M-hen  the 
pupils  are  a  little  older,  Dickens's  ChiUrs  History  of  Eng- 
land, the  Hollo  Books,  Abbott's  Histories,  and  Higgin- 
son's  Youth's  History  of  the  United  States.  All  these  are 
written  in  such  a  captivating  style,  and  present  facts  in 
such  an  interesting  way,  as  to  make  it  a  pleasure  rather 
than  a  task  to  read  them.  When  once  the  teacher  lias 
awakened  a  love  for  historical  reading  the  study  of 
History  will  not  ])rove  an  uninviting  one  to  the  \n\\)]\, 
nor  will  the  teacher  find  the  task  of  teaching  History 
one  to  be  dreaded. 

Biography  — History  has  for  its  basis  the  biography 
of  the  chief  actors  in  a  nation.  The  student  who  reads 
the  lives  of  Washington,  Franklin,  and  others  of   the 


384  METHODS   OF  TEACHING. 

Revolutionary  days,  reads  substantially  the  early  his- 
tory of  our  republic.  It  is  important,  therefore,  that  the 
student  of  History  be  encouraged  to  read  biography  also. 
Let  him  not  be  satisfied  with  the  bare  historical  fact 
as  stated  in  the  textbook,  but  lead  him  to  connect  this 
Avith  the  life  and  interesting  history  of  those  who  made 
iri.-rtory  what  it  is  by  the  part  which  they  played  in  the 
liistorical  changes  that  have  been  wrought. 

Leading  Events. — The  student  of  History  should  be  led 
to  see  that  certain  leading  events  in  the  history  of  every 
nation  have  been  most  fruitful  of  historical  changes. 
These  he  should  be  taught  to  regard  as  the  essential 
points  to  be  remembered.  Much  of  History,  it  may  be 
remarked,  is  only  to  be  read.  The  pupil  would  find 
it  unprofitable  to  attempt  to  remember  everything  as 
it  occurred  in  a  nation's  growth.  History,  however, 
should  not  be  a  mere  skeleton.  Chronology  and  History 
are  not  the  same,  however  important  the  relation  between 
the  two. 

Historic  Centres. — ]Much  the  best  plan  of  presenting 
History  to  the  advanced  student  is  that  of  selecting  some 
historical  event  as  a  centre  about  which  others  may  be 
grouped.  Thus,  in  American  history,  the  chief  centres 
are  Discoveries,  Early  Settlements,  the  French  and  In- 
dian War,  the  Revolutionary  War,  the  AVar  of  1812,  the 
Mexican  War,  the  Civil  War,  Slavery.  About  these  dif- 
ferent centres  may  be  grouped  nearly  every  historical  fact 
of  importance  in  the  record  of  our  country. 

The  History  of   Peace. — Probably  in  no  respect  is  so 


HISTORY.  385 

great  a  mistake  made  iu  the  teaching  of  History  as  in 
giving  undue  prominence  to  the  history  of  the  various 
Avars  with  which  our  country  has  been  afflicted.  Authors 
of  histories  seem  to  tliink  that  the  student  of  History  is 
interested  only  in  war  and  its  results,  and  not  in  the 
greater  victories  of  peace.  Much  attention  should  be 
given  to  such  important  topics  as  tlie  introduction  of 
railways,  the  invention  of  telegrapliy,  the  introduction 
of  the  electric  light,  and  various  other  matters  that  mark 
intellectual  progress  and  prosperity,  and  show  the  substan- 
tial claims  which  an  advanced  civilization  presents. 

Causes  and  Results. — History  should  not  be  regarded 
as  a  mere  recital  of  events-  Pupils  should  be  taught 
that  each  event  has  had  a  producing  cause,  and  this,  with 
the  result,  should  also  be  carefully  taught.  Thus,  in 
teaching  the  Revolutionary  War,  the  plan  should  be  first 
to  show  both  the  direct  and  the  indirect  causes  which  led 
to  the  revolt  of  the  colonies  against  England ;  following 
this  should  be  mentioned  the  chief  events  and  incidents 
of  the  war  itself;  and  then  the  results  of  the  Revolution, 
including  the  independence  of  the  States,  the  Confederacy, 
the  formation  of  the  Constitution,  the  inauguration  of 
the  present  government,  the  enlargement  of  territory. 

In  a  similar  manner,  each  of  the  other  important 
events  in  our  history  might  be  taught,  and  iu  connection 
with  the  event  the  producing  cause  or  causes,  as  well  as 
the  result  and  its  influence  on  the  subsequent  history  of 
the  nation. 

Historical  Characters. — It  will  frequently  prove  profit- 
able to  have  pupils  study  some  historical  characters  with- 

25 


386  METHODS   OF  TEACniXG. 

out  reference  to  the  concurrent  actions  of  others.  Thus, 
it  would  be  interesting  to  trace  the  career  of  Washington 
from  the  time  he  first  appears  in  the  history  of  onr  nation 
to  tlie  time  of  his  death.  Tlie  biography  of  Franklin, 
William  Penn,  Captain  John  Smith,  Columbns,  Henry 
Hudson,  and  others  would  prove  equally  profitable. 

Methods  of  Recitation. 

The  method  of  recitation  in  History  should  be  mainly 
topical.  The  advantage  of  the  topical  method  in  History 
is  that  pupils  learn  to  express  themselves  in  a  more  con- 
nected manner  than  by  the  catechetical  method  of  recita- 
tion. The  latter  method  should,  however,  be  employed 
in  bringing  out  i'acts  of  interest  that  may  have  been 
overlooked  by  the  pupil. 

Care  must  be  takeu  when  tlie  topical  method  of  reci- 
tation is  pursued  that  pupils  recite  in  their  own  words 
and  not  in  the  language  of  the  textbook.  One  of  the 
chief  faults  in  the  past  teaching  of  History  has  been 
that  of  requiring  pupils  to  recite  as  nearly  as  possible  in 
the  words  of  the  textbook.  The  result  has  been  that 
pupils  memorized  the  language  of  the  book  verbatim, 
and  while  able  to  repeat  the  words  knew  nothing  of 
History. 

It  will  be  found  a  valuable  variation  of  the  topical 
method  to  have  part  of  the  class  recite  orally  while 
others  M'rite  their  recitation  of  the  same  topics,  some  on 
paper  and  others  on  the  blackboard.  The  topical  metliod 
may  be  further  varied  by  having  a  pupil  who  recited 
orallv  proceed  t(^  write  out  in  correct  language  all  that 
he  stated  i)reviously.  By  this  method  the  pupil  gains 
a  twofold  advantage  of  the  recitation,  in  making  the  his- 


HiSTor.Y.  387 

lorical  fact  a  part  of  his  0'>vn  knowledge  and  in  gaining 
at  tlie  same  time  valuable  training  in  language. 

Questions. — When  a  pupil  has  finished  reciting  a  topic 
the  teacher  should  proceed  to  question  him  in  order  to 
develop  such  facts  as  may  not  have  been  stated,  as  well 
as  detect  whether  the  recitation  has  been  a  mere  repeti- 
tion of  words  or  an  intellio-ent  statement  of  facts. 

Outlines  of  Topics. — Before  the  recitation  on  History- 
begins  let  a  number  of  pu])ils  proceed  to  place  on  the 
blackboard  an  outline  of  the  subjects  to  be  discussed 
during  the  recitation.  This  will  require  each  pupil  to 
have  a  comprehensive  view  of  the  lesson  as  a  whole. 
Writing  this  outline  will  tend  also  to  impress  on  the 
mind  of  the  learner  even  the  details  of  the  lesson. 
While  some  pupils  are  writing  this  outline  others  may 
proceed  to  discuss  individual  topics.  Both  the  written 
and  the  oral  discussion  should  be  open  to  the  criticism 
of  the  other  members  of  the  class,  in  order  that  all  may 
be  trained  to  strict  accuracy. 

Geography  and  History. — These  two  should,  to  some 
extent,  be  taught  together.  All  important  historical 
events  should  be  located  on  the  map.  Pupils  should  be 
required  to  show  the  routes  of  armies,  the  points  of 
attack,  etc.  They  should  also  be  required  to  trace  the 
course  of  navigators  in  making  the  first  discoveries  in 
this  country.  They  may  also  be  required  to  produce 
maps  and  locate  the  principal  historical  events;  all  this 
will  tend  to  make  their  knowledge  of  both  Geography 
and   History  more  definite  and  more  valuable. 

Historical  Discussion. — The  student  of  History  should 
be  encouraged  to  form  judgments  and  express  his  opinions 
on   any  historical  changes  that  may  have  taken   place. 


S88  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

Thus,  tlie  causes  which  may  have  led  to  any  war,  or  the 
result  of  a  war,  may  form  the  basis  of  discussion,  in 
Avhich  the  pupil  should  be  permitted  to  express  his 
opinion  unbiased  by  any  statement  of  the  historian. 
This  will  encourage  pupils  to  read  History  intelligently, 
and  not  follow  blindly  the  statements  of  possibly  partisan 
writers. 

Historical  Lectures. — These  are  designed  mainly  to 
benefit  those  who  have  completed  the  study  of  the  text- 
book, by  adding  new  matter  which  is  beyond  the  reach 
of  the  learner.  They  may  be  made  specially  interesting 
by  making  tliem  partake  largely  of  a  biographical 
character.  They  should  also,  to  a  great  extent,  be  in- 
terspersed with  personal  incidents  and  anecdotes,  to  make 
them  both  interesting  and  profitable. 

Preparation  for  the  Recitation. 

The  Teacher's  Preparation. — The  teacher  should  know 
much  more  History  than  is  to  be  found  in  the  textbook 
from  which  the  pupil  is  expected  to  recite.  He  should 
also  know  what  is  presented  in  the  textbook  used,  and 
the  manner  in  which  it  is  presented,  in  order  to  appre- 
ciate the  efforts  of  the  pupil  reciting.  He  should,  how- 
ever, have  an  additional  fund  of  anecdote  and  incident 
from  which  to  draw,  and  with  which  to  embellish  and 
make  interesting  the  tojjics  to  be  taught.  He  should 
also  be  prepared  to  express  himself  in  choice  language 
and  in  such  a  manner  as  to  hold  the  attention  of  the 
class  closely  to  the  subject  of  the  lesson. 

The  Pupils'  Preparation. — Pupils  should  be  required  to 
prepare  their  lessons  by  topics,  not  by  pages.  Uniformity 
of  textbooks  is  not  absolutely  essential  in  this  branch. 


IIISTORV 


389 


Indeed,  niauy  good  teachers  prefer  that  the  pupils  should 
not  all  prepare  their  lesson  from  the  same  author,  per- 
mitting the  children  to  gather  their  knowledge  from  any 
reliable  source. 

The  pupils  in  })reparing  the  lesson  should  be  en- 
couraged to  get  a  view  of  the  lesson  as  a  whole,  and  then 
add  the  chief  details.  They  should  be  encouraged  to 
prepare  an  outline  of  the  chief  events  without  reference 
to  the  minute  details  of  the  subject;  these  may,  if  neces- 
sary, be  added  afterward.  Each  event  should  be  studied 
also  with  reference  to  its  relation  to  preceding  events,  as 
Avell  as  with  relation  to  its  causes  and  results. 

III.  Suggestions  on  Teaching  History. 

1.  Dates.— Do  not  require  your  pupils  to  memorize 
all  the  dates.  Select  only  those  dates  to  be  memorized 
which  mark  the  leading  events.  The  sequence  of  events 
is  more  important  than  dates.  It  is  the  senseless  require- 
ment of  some  teachers  that  all  dates  be  memorized,  and 
it  is  this  that  makes  History  a  study  to  be  despised  by 

the  pupil. 

2.  The  Advance  Lesson. — Read  the  advance  lesson 
aloud  to  the  class,  and  have  your  j>upils  mark  such  parts 
as  you  desire  to  have  them  remember.  Much  of  History 
is  simply  to  be  read,  not  memorized. 

3.  Prominent  Events. — Make  a  few  events  prominent, 
and  around  these  group  minor  events  that  have  a  rela- 
tion to  these  more  important  ones. 

4.  Clu'onological  Tables,— Give  but  little  attention  to 
chronological  tables  except  for  reference.  Teaching 
chronology  is  not  teaching  History.  The  year  or  the 
day  on  wluch  a  battle  was  fought  or  a  city  destroyed  is 


390  METHODS    OF   TEACUINO. 

of  but  little  moment  compared  with  the  cause  and  the 
results. 

5.  Causes  and  Results.— Have  pupils  fix  in  their  minds 
the  causes  and  the  results  of  the  most  prominent  events, 
as  the  Hevolutionary  "\^'ar  or  the  Mexican  War.  Ask 
questions  which  will  lead  them  to  search  for  causes. 
AVhy  did  Penn  try  to  establish  colonies  in  this  country? 
Why  do  we  celebrate  the  Fourth  of  July  ?  Why  did 
the  Dutch  seek  homes  on  the  Hudson  ?  Why  did  the 
Boston  peojile  throw  the  tea  overboard  into  Boston 
harbor?  Questions  of  this  character  will  cause  the 
pupil  to  think,  and  he  will  sec  some  reason  why  we 
should  study  History. 

6.  Biographical  Sketches. — Have  pupils  write  sliort 
biographical  sketches  of  the  most  prominent  or  inter- 
esting characters  in  History.  This  will  lead  them  to  an 
acquaintance  with  History  by  a  pleasant  path,  and  they 
will  soon  become  interested. 

7.  Map-Drawing. — Let  pupils  in  History  draw  maps 
and  locate  important  events,  so  as  tc  show  that  they 
comprehend  fully  what  they  recite.  These  maps  may 
be  drawn  on  an  enlarged  scale,  and  the  routes  of  armies 
be  traced  arid  the  scenes  of  other  interestiuir  events  be. 
located. 

8.  Make  Histoiy  Interesting. — Supplement  the  text- 
book statement  with  interesting  anecdotes,  incidents, 
stories,  and  sketches  of  noted  men.  The  sufferings  of 
the  soldiers  at  Valley  Forge  and  their  bloody  footprints 
in  the  snow  have  stirred  the  heart  of  many  an  American 
boy  more  than  all  the  victories  ever  gained  by  the  Con- 
tinental army.  An  anecdote  often  serves  to  make  an 
historical  fact  stick  when  it  would  otherwise  be  for- 


nisTOKY.  391 

gotten.  Tlie  fact  that  Santa  Anna  retreated  so  rai)i(lly 
from  Cerro  Gordo  as  to  leave  his  private  papers  and 
his  wooden  leg  behind  will  have  a  more  important 
influence  in  causins;  the  learner  to  remember  the  Amer- 
lean  victory  over  the  INIexicans  in  that  battle  than  all 
the  possible  records  of  "killed,  wounded,  and  missing" 
could  do. 

9.  The  Civil  War. — In  teaching  the  history  of  the 
American  Civil  War  do  not  lead  pupils  to  study  events 
according  to  the  years  in  which  they  occurred.  Much 
the  easier  plan  is  to  trace  the  progress  of  events  by 
studying  the  plans  of  the  various  campaigns,  which 
wei'e  designed  to  secure  the  following  results : 

1.  Tlie  Possession  of  the  Border  Stcites  ; 

2.  The  Capture  of  Vie  Confederate  Capital ; 

3.  The  Blockade  and  Occupation  of  tlie  Confederate 
Ports  ; 

4.  The  Opening  of  the  Mississippi ; 

5.  Tlie  Division  of  tlie  Confederacy. 

Each  of  tlie  foregoing  should  be  studied  connectedly 
and  in  detail,  in  order  that  the  pupil  may  get  a  compre- 
liensive  view  of  the  entire  subject,  and  so  arrange  the 
history  in  his  mind  as  to  remember  it  readily. 

10.  State  History. — Have  ])U[)ils  give  much  attention 
to  the  history  of  their  own  State.  Tiiey  ought  to  be- 
come acquainted  with  all  the  important  events  that  have 
become  a  part  of  the  history  of  the  State  in  which  they 
live. 

11.  Historical  Changes. — Let  children  who  have  stud- 
ied History  for  some  time  draw  parallels  between  the 
past  and  the  present,  showing  the  progress  made  in  art, 
commerce,  education,  facilities  for  travel,  communication 


392  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

by  post  and  by  telegrapli,  and  the  advancement  made  In 
social  customs. 

12.  New  Matter. — 'Whenever*  possible  add  new  and 
interestins^  historical  matter  to  that  given  bv  the  text- 
book.  This  may  either  consist  of  more  minute  details 
than  are  given  in  the  book,  oi'  it  may  consist  of  contem- 
poraneous events. 

13.  Review. — Review  lessons  continually.  Do  not 
wait  for  a  weekly  or  a  monthly  review,  but  whenever 
you  have  a  few  spare  moments  call  upon  some  pupils  to 
explain  topics  previously  taught.  This  will  impress  per- 
manently on  the  mind  the  most  important  facts  learned. 

14.  Examinations. — In  examining  classes  in  History 
avoid  dates  as  much  as  possible.  Assign  topics,  and 
let  pupils  tell  or  write  all  they  know  on  these.  Inter- 
mingle in  these  to])ics  persons,  places,  and  events;  as 
Fort  Sumter,  Alexander  Hamilton,  Yorktoivn,  the  Decla- 
ration of  Independence,  Ethan  Allen,  The  Ilissouri  Com- 
promi.se. 

15.  Civil  Government. — Whenever  possible  teach  in 
connection  with  History  some  of  the  important  pro- 
visions of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States.  Pu- 
pils may  be  led  to  take  an  interest  in  the  duties  per- 
formed by  the  various  officers  of  our  government,  and 
in  the  powers  which  these  officers  ])ossess.  They  may 
also  be  interested  in  the  mode  of  making  and  repealing 
laws,  collecting  customs,  etc.  The  study  of  History  in 
connection  with  the  study  of  Civil  Government  should 
aim  to  prej^are  pupils  for  citizenship. 


THE   ARTS, 


The  arts  to  which  attention  sliould  be  given  in  a 
general  course  of  instruction  are  Penmanship,  Drawing, 
and  A'^ocal  jNIusic. 


CHAPTER   I. 
Pexmaxship. 


Nothing  need  be  said  here  as  to  the  usefulness  of  this 
art.  Indeed;  however  primitive  the  condition  of  a  school, 
the  necessity  of  learning  to  write,  like  that  of  learning  to 
read,  is  always  conceded.  The  excellence  of  instruction 
usually  presented  on  the  covers  of  the  various  copybooks 
precludes  the  necessity  of  doing  more  here  than  give  a  few 
suggestions  on  the  methods  of  teaching  penmanship. 

The  Objects. — Two  chief  objects  must  be  kept  in  view 
in  teaching  penmanship:  first,  the  training  of  the  eye  to 
perceive  and  judge  of  correct  and  beautiful  form ;  and, 
second,  the  training  of  the  hand  to  execute  and  produce 
form  correcily.  The  child  learns  to  distinguish  between 
correct  and  incorrect  forms  much  more  readily  than  it 
learns  to  execute  form.  Unless  there  is  special  talent 
it  learns  to  produce  form  correctly  only  after  long-con- 
tinued practice;  and  it  seems  specially  necessary,  there- 

31)3 


394  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

fore,  tliat  the  exercises  presented  be  so  graded  as  to  make 
tlie  practice  of  the  greatest  possible  value. 

The  Ends  to  be  Secured  in  Teaching  Penmanship. 

1.  Legibility. — The  desirable  ends  to  be  secured  in 
the  teaching  of  penmansphip  are  legibility,  rapidity,  and 
beauty.  Of  tliese  the  first  and  the  second  are  by  far  the 
most  important  for  the  ordinary  student.  A  plain,  legible, 
regular  handwriting  is  vastly  more  pleasant  to  read,  and 
vastly  more  creditable  to  both  teacher  and  pu])il,  than  a 
semi-artistic,  grotesque,  or  angular  style  that  displays 
some  weakness  of  intellect. 

2.  Rapidity. — Next  in  importance  to  legibility  of 
handwriting  is  rapidity.  This  is  gained  only  by  con- 
stant practice.  Written  spelling-exercises  and  written 
exercises  in  other  branches  of  study  contribute  much 
toward  making  pu])Ils  rapid  writers.  Business-men  par- 
ticularly find  it  important  to  write  rapidly.  Rapid  writing- 
exercises  ou<rht  to  be  a  ])art  of  the  school-work,  but 
legibility  slio'jkl  in  no  case  be  subordinated  to  rapidity. 

3.  Beauty.- -Beauty  of  writing  is  im])ortant  in  culti- 
vating the  taste,  b'lt  in  no  case  should  it  be  ranked 
in  importance  with  either  legibility  or  rapidity.  Nor 
should  it  be  supposed  that  beauty  of  penmanship  con- 
sists in  sweeping  e iirves,  heavy  shades,  or  other  fantastic 
or  fanciful  work.  Flourishes  are  one  tliino;,  while  correct 
and  beautiful  fuira  is  quite  another. 


'Q} 


Suggestions  on  Penmanship. 

1.  Classification. — INIuch  time  may  be  saved  in  teaching 
penmanship  by  having  the  pupils  classified.  The  school 
may  consist  of  several  sections,  all  of  which  may  write 


^E^^^rAXSIII^.  395 

at  tlie  same  time.  An  exjilanation  to  a  pupil  in  any 
section  should  be  made  to  all  in  that  section  at  tiie  same 
time.  This  may  be  done  by  the  aid  of  the  blackboard  or 
the  writing-chart. 

2.  Writing-Cliarts. — If  a  regular  series  of  copybooks  is 
in  use,  the  charts  by  the  same  author  should  be  [jlaced 
before  the  pupils.  These  Avill  be  found  very  convenient 
in  enabling  the  teacher  to  point  out  the  proper  formation 
of  letters,  etc.,  that  the  proper  corrections  may  be  made. 

3..  Printed  Copies. — The  printed  copybooks  published 
by  many  American  book-houses  ought  to  find  their  way 
into  every  school-room.  They  are  but  little  more  ex- 
pensive than  so  much  blank  paper,  and  they  serve  a 
much  better  purpose,  and  save  for  the  teacher  much 
time  which  may  be  applied  to  better  use  tiian  "setting 
copies." 

4.  Copy-Slips. — Should  no  regular  series  of  copybooks 
be  adopted,  the  teacher  should  prepare  a  series  of  graded 
copy-slips.  The  old-style  head-lines  do  not  answer  the 
purpose,  nor  ought  tlie  teacher  to  be  expected  to  set  copies 
for  tliirty  or  forty  pupils  everyday  preparatory  to  their  ex- 
ercise in  peumanshij).  He  will  be  able  to  do  much  better 
work  by  writing  on  good  foolscap  paper  the  same  exercise 
for  all  the  pupils  in  a  section,  and  then  cutting  these  slips 
otf,  so  as  to  furnish  one  to  every  member  of  the  section. 
By  tiiis  plan  the  teacher  will  also  be  able  to  grade  his 
lessons  from  day  to  day. 

5.  A  Writing-Time. — The  teacher  should  have  a  sjiecial 
time  set  apart  when  all  pupils  may  write,  and  their 
copybooks  should  be  kept  out  of  sight  at  all  other  times. 
The  best  time  for  the  writing-exercise  is  before  recess  or 
before  the  close  of  school,  or  at  any  other  time  when  the 


396  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

children's  nerves  are  steady;  the  worst  time  is  immo- 
diately  after  the  opening  of  school  or  after  recess,  when 
the  pulse  is  bounding  and  the  nerves  are  quivering  with 
the  excitement  of  the  play  which  the  children  have  just 
left. 

G.  Proper  Position. — The  teacher  must  be  careful  to 
Bee  that  pupils  assume  a  proper  position  while  Meriting. 
The  right  side  should  be  nearest  the  desk,  the  arm 
should  rest  on  the  muscular  portion  between  the  elbow 
and  the  wrist,  and  only  the  tips  of  the  little  finger  and 
its  nearest  neighbor  should  be  permitted  to  touch  the 
paper.  The  desk  should  not  be  so  high  as  to  make  the 
arm  tired  in  writing  or  cause  the  right  shoulder  to  prO' 
ject  above  the  level  of  the  left, 

7.  Holding  the  Pen. — The  chief  thing  to  be  insisted 
upon  here  is  that  the  pen  shall  be  held  loosely.  The 
chief  difference  between  writincr  with  ease  and  writins: 
in  such  a  way  as  to  make  one  tire  readily  consists  in  the 
manner  of  holding  the  pen.  A  writer  who  holds  his 
pen  with  a  firm  grasp  will  find  his  muscles  growing 
tired  in  a  very  short  time,  while  another  who  holds  the 
pen  lightly  is  enabled  to  write  for  hours  without  becom- 
ing wearied. 

8.  Short  Pencils. — The  teacher  should  see  that  his 
pupils  use  long  pencils.  The  frequent  use  of  a  short 
pencil  causes  the  pupil  to  contract  a  habit  of  holding  it 
in  a  cramped  position,  which,  when  he  comes  to  write 
■with  a  pen,  will  greatly  interfere  with  e.ither  graceful  or 
rapid  writing.  Bad  habits  in  holding  a  pencil  will 
almost  certainly  result  in  holding  the  pen  improperly. 

9.  Movements. — Have  pupils  from  the  beginning  write 
with  a  free  and  ready  movement,  such  as  will  permit 


PEXMAXsnip.  397 

tlieni  to  use  the  muscles  without  tiring  them.  "Whether 
the  movement  be  the  finger  movement,  the  forearm 
movement,  or  the  whole-arm  movement,  let  the  play  of 
the  muscles  be  entirely  unconstrained. 

10.  Slate-Writing. — Slate-writing  should  precede  writ- 
ing on  paper.  This  will  give  the  same  muscular  move- 
ment as  writing  with  a  pen,  provided  the  pupil  be  re- 
quired to  hold  the  pencil  properly,  which  he  can  do  only 
when  the  pencil  is  of  proper  size. 

11.  Tracing. — "When  the  pupil  first  attempts  to  use  the 
pen  he  should  be  required  for  some  time  to  trace  the 
letters  with  a  dry  pen,  much  as  the  professional  violinist 
is  fii'st  required  to  hold  the  bow  properly  aud  then  prac- 
tice for  a  time  without  a  rosined  bow  and  without  pro- 
ducing any  sound.  Tracing  the  letters  with  a  dry  pen 
will  give  the  muscular  movement  as  well  as  cultivate 
the  idea  of  form. 

12.  Pencil- Writing. — "Writing  through  the  first  books 
of  a  series  with  lead-pencil  instead  of  jien  and  ink  will 
be  less  likely  to  deface  the  copybooks,  while  the  prac- 
tice is  almost  as  valuable  as  is  afforded  by  writing 
with  a  pen. 

13.  Tracing  Forms. — A  valuable  exercise  is  that  of 
tracing  forms  of  letters.  This  may  be  done  on  a  ]Mece 
of  practice-paper  first  with  a  dry  pen  and  then  with  ink. 
The  same  letter,  as  a,  or  o,  or  s,  should  be  traced  over 
hundreds  of  times  until  the  muscles  acquire  the  proper 
movement  to  make  the  letter  properly. 

14.  Blackboard-Writing.— Forms  may  be  traced  also 
on  the  blackboard  with  chalk.  This  will  give  a  free- 
arm  movement.  Pupils  may  also  bo  permitted  at  times 
to    write    on    the    blackboard.     See,  however,  that    the 


S98  METHODS   OF   TEACHIXG. 

crayon  is  lield  properly  aiiJ  that  the  work  is  neatly  and 
correctly  done. 

15.  But  One  Way  at  a  Time. — Do  not  confuse  beginners 
by  teaching  them  several  ways  of  making  a  letter,  espe- 
cially capitals.  Let  them  practice  carefully  on  a  single 
way  of  making  a  letter  until  they  can  make  it  readily 
and  correctly.  If  they  need  other  forms  these  may  be 
taught  later. 

16.  Individuality. — Pui)ils  should  not  be  encouraged 
to  imitate  the  copy  so  closely  as  to  destroy  their  own 
individualitv.  One's  handwritinsr  should  be  character- 
istic.  AVhen  pupils  have  once  learned  to  write  legibly, 
let  their  chief  aim  be  to  write  rapidly,  even  if  the  letters 
are  not  wholly  like  those  of  the  copybook. 

17.  Specimens. — Let  each  pupil  be  required  to  give  a 
specimen  of  his  handwriting  when  he  enters  .school.  At 
the  middle  of  the  term  let  him  give  a  second  specimen, 
and  at  the  close  of  the  term  a  third,  in  order  that  his 
improvement  may  be  determined  by  a  comparison.  All 
this  will  be  an  incentive  to  imjirovement. 

18.  Principles. — The  principles  embraced  in  the  letters 
should  be  carefullv  taught,  but  not  at  first.  AVritins'  is 
learned  mostly  by  imitation  and  practice.  Let  pupils  at 
first  write  and  rewrite  single  letters,  then  short  words, 
and  finally  sentences,  leaving  the  analyses  and  the  prin- 
ciples to  be  among  the  last  instruction  imparted. 

1 9.  Criticism. — The  teacher  should  move  around  amoncj 
his  pupils  while  they  are  writing,  in  order  that  he  may  ex- 
amine their  Avork  and  make  necessary  criticisms.  Often 
he  may  correct  the  mistake  of  nearly  a  whole  class  by 
writing  on  the  board  a  letter  incorrectly  as  he  finds  it  in 
the  work  of  a  number  of  pupils. 


PENMANSHIP.  399 

20.  Dictation. — A  valuable  exercise  in  pcnmanjjiip  ia 
that  of  having  pupils  write  from  dictation.  The  ex- 
ercise may  be  made  doubly  valuable  by  making  this 
dictation  consist  of  maxims,  rules  of  health,  models  of 
business-letters,  receipts,  checks,  and  other  commercial 
forms.  When  once  the  pupils  have  learned  to  write  a 
good  hand,  the  teacher  may  substitute  those  dictation- 
exercises  to  a  great  extent  for  the  rcrrular  writinir- 
lesson. 

21.  Graded  Work. — The  first  combinations  of  letters 
should  consist  of  words  in  which  the  letters  are  each  a 
space  in  height,  as  man,  men;  from  these  the  steps 
should  be  gradual  to  words  containing  letters  more 
than  a  space  in  height,  as  tan,  hen,  get.  These  may 
be  followed  by  \vords  containing  caj^itals  easily  made, 
as  Aim,  Can,  Ink.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  some 
of  the  capitals  are  but  little  more  difficult  to  make  than 
are  some  of  the  small  letters. 

22.  Self-Help. — Show  pupils  in  the  beginning  of  the 
term  that  their  improvement  in  penmanship  will  de- 
pend more  on  what  they  do  for  themselves  than  on 
what  is  done  for  them.  They  can  learn  to  write  only 
by  exercising  great  care  and  by  practicing  patiently 
until  they  are  able  tc  make  the  forms  correctly  and 
rapidly. 

23.  Tlie  Custody  of  the  Books. — Many  reasons  might 
be  given  why  the  copybooks  should  be  kept  at  the 
teacher's  desk  when  the  writing-exercise  is  not  in 
progress.  This  will  prevent  much  confusion  and 
keep  the  pupils  from  writing  at  improper  times.  A 
system  of  signals,  the  simpler  the  better,  may  be  used 
for  distributing  and  collecting  the  books. 


CHAPTER    IT. 

There  is  no  good  reason  why  Drawing  should  not 
form  a  part  of  every  scliool-course.  Ability  to  draw 
is  au  indispensable  element  of  all  true  education.  It 
is  argued  by  excellent  authority  that,  "commercially 
speaking,  the  power  to  draw  well  is  worth  more  in  the 
market  to-day  than  anything  else  taught  in  the  public 
schools ;  and  an  education  in  industrial  art  is  of  more 
importance  to  the  development  of  this  country,  and  the 
increase  of  her  wealth  and  reputation,  than  any  other 
subject  of  common-school  education." 

The  chief  ends  to  be  reached  in  teaching  di-awiug  aro 
the  culture  of  the  eye  in  judging  of  form  and  the  train- 
ing of  the  hand  in  producing  form  correctly.  Both  of 
these  processes  will  teach  the  child  to  appreciate  art  and 
create  in  him  a  desire  to  possess  its  products.  The  tend- 
ency of  drawing  as  a  study  is  to  minister  to  the  child's 
love  for  the  beautiful  in  form,  and  it  thus  aids  directly 
in  {esthetic,  culture. 

Suggestions  on  Teaching  Drawing. 

The  authors  of  drawino;-books  differ  so  much  in  the 
details  as  to  the  manner  of  presenting  the  subject  that 
wo  «hall  limit  the  discussion  here  to  a  few  general  sug- 

400 


DRAWING.  401 

gestious,  referring  the  reader  for  more  specific  metlioda 
to  any  one  of  the  various  systems  of  drawing. 

1.  Non-Systematic  Drawing. — Pupils  early  display  a 
taste  for  drawing  pictures  of  objects.  Two  benefits  will 
arise  from  permitting  them  to  enjoy  themselves  in  this 
way :  they  will  not  only  be  kept  busy,  but  they  will 
also  become  interested  in  the  subject  of  drawing  itself 
as  their  pictures  become  more  and  more  correct. 

Even  after  pupils  have  begun  the  study  of  drawing 
in  a  systematic  way  they  should  be  permitted  to  amuse 
themselves  by  drawing  pictures  of  familiar  objects,  or 
even  produce  work  strictly  imaginary  in  character.  This 
supplementary  work  is  valuable  in  cultivating  taste  as  well 
as  in  giving  training  to  the  hand. 

2.  Ruled  Slates. — It  would  be  well  if  every  child  could 
at  first  work  on  a  slate  ruled  in  squares.  The  lines  would 
serve  at  first  as  a  guide,  and  later  the  places  of  intersec- 
tion might  be  used  in  locating  points  in  drawing  the  pic- 
tures of  objects. 

3.  Drawing  and  Writing. — Where  but  little  spare  time 
exLsts,  as  in  the  case  of  ungraded  schools,  drawing  and 
w'riting-exercises  might  alternate,  or  the  pupils  might 
write  three  times  a  week  and  have  drawing-lessons  twice 
a  week.  In  this  way  both  those  subjects  might  be  taught, 
and  each  be  made  to  help  the  other. 

4.  Drawing  Familiar  Objects. — Let  the  children  in 
school,  particularly  the  younger  children,  have  all  the 
exercise  they  desire  in  drawing  the  pictures  of  familiar 
objects.  Let  them  select  their  own  topics  and  have  full 
})lav,  so  long  as  their  work  does  not  interfere  with  the 
otiier  exercises  of  the  school. 

5.  Blackboard  Work. — As  a  general  thing,  pupils  pre- 

26 


402  JIETIIODS    OF   TEACHING. 

fer  to  draw  on  the  blackboard  with  crayon,  both  because 
tliey  can  draw  larger  pictures  and  because  other  pupils 
see  their  work.  The  judicious  teacher  can  frequently 
do  much  in  the  matter  of  securing  good  discipline  by 
giving  the  little  folks  an  opportunity  to  enjoy  black- 
board drawing. 

6.  Straight  Lines. — Before  ])upils  begin  the  work  of 
drawing  straight  lines,  let  them  take  straight  sticks  and 
show  what  forms  can  be  made  with  two  sticks,  as  V,  T,  X,  L, 
etc.;  then  let  them  reproduce  some  or  all  of  these  forms 
on  the  blackboard  and  on  pa])er.  In  a  similar  way,  let 
them  show  what  forms  they  can  produce  with  three 
straight  sticks,  then  with  foui',  and  so  on,  always  re- 
producing these  forms  with  lines. 

7.  Original  Designs. — Many  of  the  foregoing  designs 
will  rejiresent  forms  with  which  the  children  have  been 
previously  familiar.  Encourage  pupils  also  to  produce 
original  desio^ns — first,  those  consisting  of  straitrht  lines, 
then  of  curved  lines,  then  partly  of  each. 

8.  Copies. — Let  pu{)ils  at  first  have  considerable  ])rac- 
tice  in  drawing  from  copies  before  they  attemj)t  to  draw 
from  Kature.  Call  their  attention  to  any  defects  in 
proportion,  shading,  etc.,  as  comj)ared  with  the  copy. 
Encourage  them  also  to  criticise  the  defects  in  printed 
pictures  as  a  means  of  making  them  careful  in  their 
work. 

9.  Graded  Work. — In  drawing  pictures  of  objects,  let 
the  first  le.ssons  be  in  reproducing  on  paper  the  simpler 
forms  of  domestic  utensils,  ])articularly  those  whose 
outlines  are  straight  rather  than  curved.  These 
lessons  should  then  be  increased  in  difficulty  very 
gradually,    and    the    pupils    should    in    general    be   re- 


DRAWING.  403 

strlcied  to  the  objects  or  scenes  with  wliicli  tlicy  arc  most 
familiar. 

10.  Observation. — In  order  to  draw  correctly  oue  must 
observe  critically.  The  most  correct  artist  is  the  one  who 
most  closely  copies  the  object  or  the  scene  whose  picture 
he  produces.  It  is  specially  important,  therefore,  that 
the  pupil  be  trained  to  look  closely  and  critically  at 
every  part  of  the  object  or  the  j)icture  he  attempts  to. 
copy.  This  M'ill  also  afford  valuable  culture  for  the 
perceptive  faculty. 

11.  The  Teacher. — Wlien  a  series  of  drawing- books  is 
in  use  the  teacher  should  thorouohly  familiarize  liimself 
with  the  system,  in  order  that  he  may  teach  intelligently. 
Where  no  system  is  in  use,  he  will  find  sets  of  drawing- 
cards  valuable.  He  will  also  find  it  valuable  to  ])lace 
on  the  board  occasionally  an  enlarged  sketch  of  some 
object  on  the  cards,  and  then  have  the  pupils  draw  it 
reduced  in  size  on  paper  at  their  desks. 

12.  Importance. — Show  pupils  the  importance  of  draw- 
ing, not  only  in  connection  with  their  studies,  such  as 
Geography,  Natural  Philosophy,  etc.,  but  also  in  connec- 
tion with  almost  every  calling  in  life. 


CHAPTER  III. 

Vocal,  Music. 

The  acknoAvledgcd  iufluenoe  and  power  of  music  at 
all  times,  and  particularly  its  influeuce  over  the  impul- 
sive hearts  of  children,  precludes  the  necessity  of  arguing 
here  the  importance  of  teaching  either  rote-singing  or  the 
science  of  music  in  every  sciiool,  whatever  its  grade  and 
character.  The  excellence  of  the  instruction  given  in 
most  elementary  books  on  vocal  nuisic  obviates  the 
necessity  of  doing  more  than  adding  a  few  suggestions 
here. 

Suggestions  on  Vocal  Music. 

1.  Rote-Singing. — If  nothing  more  can  be  done,  train 
all  your  pupils  to  sing  a  number  of  hymns  and  appro- 
priate songs.  The  monotony  of  the  school-exercises  and 
the  noise  of  uneasiness  may  both  frequently  be  corrected 
by  means  of  a  cheerful  song.  If  tlie  teacher  cannot 
sins:,  he  should  form  a  singing-club  in  his  school  and 
appoint  some  pupil  as  leader,  who  may  be  called  upon 
by  the  teacher  at  any  time  to  lead  the  singing. 

2.  Vocal  Training. — Xothing  artistic  can  be  done  in  tlie 
■way  of  voice-culture,  but  the  voices  of  nearly  all  pupils 
may  be  greatly  improved  by  care.  The  greatest  fault 
in  children's  singing  is  that  thev  sing  with  too  much 
force.     Efforts  sliould  be  made  to  correct  this  habit. 

404 


VOCAL   MUSIC.  405 

Try  to  secure  pure  tones  from  pupils  in  their  singing, 
requiring;  tliera  to  avoid  all  nasal  tones  and  sino-ing  with 

1  o  o       o 

the  teeth  too  close  together.     Successful  work  here  will 
have  its  influence  also  in  making  pupils  pleasant  readers. 

3.  The  Science  of  Music. — Attempts  to  teach  the  science 
of  music  to  young  pupils  are  not  usually  successful,  un- 
less a  great  deal  of  time  is  devoted  to  the  subject.  It  is 
not,  therefore,  advisable  to  attempt  more  than  rote-sing- 
ing until  the  pupils  have  reached  that  stage  of  progress 
when  they  learn  the  science  of  music  readily. 

4.  Position  in  Singing. — When  children  sing,  see  that 
they  sit  or  stand  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  their  lungs 
entire  freedom  to  expand,  and  see  that  the  atmosphere 
in  the  room  is  pure. 

(For  detailed  instruction  in  the  teaching  of  music  the 
reader  is  referred  to  the  many  excellent  treatises  and 
chorus-books  prepared  specially  for  the  music-class  and 
the  singing-school.) 


PAET  III. 


METHODS    OF    CULTURE. 

Culture  cousisLs  in  training  and  development.  The 
chief  objects  of  mental  culture  are  to- strengthen,  chasten, 
and  arouse  to  the  highest  degree  of  activity  man's  various 
mental  powers.  AVant  of  space  here  precludes  a  ful: 
discussion  of  the  various  kinds  of  culture:  such  a  dis- 
cussion would  require  a  volume.  The  author  limita 
himself,  therefore,  to  a  few  of  the  most  important  sug- 
gestions on  the  culture  of  the  different  intellectual 
faculties,  as  being  that  part  of  the  subject  which  is  the 
most  useful  and  practical  for  the  teacher  and  the  most 
interesting  to  the  general  reader. 

The  chief  intellectual  faculties  to  which  it  is  the  office 
of  the  teacher  to  give  develojiment  and  training  are  P«'- 
cepilon,  Memory,  Imagination,  and  the  Understanding, 
and,  as  accompanying  these,  the  general  attribute  of 
mind,  Attention. 

How  to  Secure  and  HoJd  Attention. 
In  the  author's  work  on  Sdiool  Management  the  fol- 
lowing are  given  as  the  chief  reqidsites  for  securing  atten- 
tion, the  arguments  being  here  omitted  : 

406 


METHODS    OF    CULIUIIE.  407 

1.  The  teacher  must  be  interest  in  f/. 

2.  7'he  teacher  should  be  animated  in  manner. 

3.  The  teacher  should  present  that  which  is  new. 

4.  Stories  and  anecdotes  should  be  used  in  teaching. 

'".   The  teacher  should  adapt  his  teaching  to  the  capacity 
of  his  pupils. 

6.  The  teacher  should  attract  attention  by  good  elocu- 
tion. 

7.  The  teacher  should  not  talk  too  much. 

8.  The   teacher   should   hold   attention   by  good   class 
management. 

9.  Inattentive  implls  should  be  called  up)on  frequently 
to  recite. 

10.  The   teacher   should   hold   attention  by  variety  in 
exercises. 

11.  The  teacher  should  be  vigilant  and  keep  his  pjupils 
vigilant. 

12.  The  teacher  should  show  his  pupils  that  attention  is 
the  condition  of  success. 

The  following  suggestions  will  aid  teachers  in  securing 
and  holding  the  attention  of  pu})i]s : 

1.  Have  your  pupils  observe  closely. 

2.  Arouse  their  curiositv. 

3.  Show  that  you  are  interested  in  their  work. 

4.  Be  cheerful. 

5.  Vary  your  methods  of  recitation. 

G.  Use  the  textbook  as  little  as  possible. 

7.  Let  your  position  before  the  class  be  such  that  you 
can  look  every  pupil  in  the  eye. 

8.  Read  a  story  or  a  description,  and  then  have  it  re- 
produced by  the  pupils. 

9.  Show  your  pupils  that  you  expect  them  to  be  ready 


408  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

at  any  time  to  reproduce  whatever  you  may  tell  in  reci- 
tation. 

10.  Cultivate  attention  by  giving  proper  praise  and 
credit  when  pupils  are  attentive. 

Culture  of  Perception. 

Perception  is  tiiat  power  of  the  mind  by  which  we 
gain  knowledge  through  the  senses.  The  knowledge 
furnished  through  perception  forms  the  basis  of  all 
other  knowledge,  either  acquired  or  originated  in  the 
mind.  The  chief  avenues  throuo-h  which  knoM-ledge 
reaches  the  human  mind  are  the  five  senses,  touch,  taste, 
smell,  sight,  and  hearing,  sometimes  called  "the  five  gate- 
ways of  knowledge."  The  knowledge  afforded  by  means 
of  these  senses  is  not  only  fundamental ;  it  is  also  the 
first  knowledge  that  the  child  possesses.  Perception  is 
therefore  the  first  faculty  of  the  mind  developed. 

Suggestions  on  the  Culture  of  Perception. — 1.  Physical 
Health  is  Essential  to  the  Proper  Culture  of  Perception. — 
Sensation  precedes  perception,  but  in  order  that  our  sen- 
sations may  be  distinct  the  org^ans  of  sense,  together  with 
the  nerves  which  convey  the  intelligence  to  the  brain, 
must  be  in  a  healthy  condition ;  and  this  can  be  the  case 
only  when  the  general  physical  health  is  good. 

2.  Children  should  be  Trained  to  Obsei've  Closely  and 
Accurately. — Pestalozzi  claimed  that  in  recognizing  oh- 
Bcrvation  as  the  absolute  basis  of  all  knowledge  he  estab- 
lished the  first  and  most  important  principle  of  instruc- 
tion. 

3.  Strict  Attention  is  Necessary  to  Give  Culture  to  th( 
Olsei'ving  Powers. — Without   att'^ntion  on  the   part   of 


METHODS    OF    CULTUKE.  409 

the  Icainer  all  eiforts  to  communicate  kuowleclge  to  him 
arc  useless.  Ears,  eyes,  and  other  organs  of  sense  are  in 
a  measure  worthless  to  the  inattentive. 

4.  Object- Lessons  are  Important  in  Giving  Culture  to 
Perception. — The  attention  of  children  is  more  readily 
secured  by  having  an  object  present  to  their  senses  than 
by  a  mere  description.  The  sense  of  sight  is  also  more 
active  than  any  of  the  other  senses,  and  a  pupil  will  with 
a  single  inspection  during  an  object-lesson  often  learn  more 
than  a  description  given  by  the  teacher  would  convey  to 
him  in  a  series  of  lessons. 

5.  Perception  may  he  Cultivated  by  having  Pupils  Study 
Objects  for  the  Purjjose  of  Describing  them. — It  will  read- 
ily be  understood  that  in  order  to  describe  intelligently 
the  pupil  must  observe  both  closely  and  accurately,  and 
his  perceptive  powers  will  thus  be  improved. 

6.  Sketching  the  Outlines  of  Objects  is  Valuable  in  Giving 
Culture  to  Perception. — In  order  to  sketch  or  draw  cor- 
rectly close  observation  is  necessary,  and  this  in  turn 
gives  culture  to  the  faculty  of  perception. 

7.  Variety  in  School- Work  is  Conducive  to  Culture  of 
Perception. — Children  whose  minds  are  directed  to  one 
subject  for  too  great  a  length  of  time  become  inattentive, 
and  therefore  lose  interest  to  such  an  extent  as  to  make 
their  observation  comparatively  worthless. 

8.  Short  School-days  are  Best  for  the  Culture  of  Per- 
ception.— Not  only  should  the  transition  from  one  subject 
to  another  in  school-work  be  frequent,  but  the  number  of 
school-hours  also  should  be  reduced  in  primary  schools. 
Short  school-days — four  hours  at  most,  and  frequent  re- 
cesses—are best  for  little  children.  Having  no  recess  may 
be  convenient  for  the  teacher,  but  it  is  detrimental  to  the 


ilO  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

child's  WGlfarc,  and  therefore  pernicious.  The  outdoor 
school  is  quite  as  important  to  the  child  as  the  moie 
formal  one  indoors. 

9.  KindergaHen  Trainwf/  is  Excellent  in  Giving  Cul- 
ture to  the  Faculty  of  Perception. — It  was  one  of  Froebel's 
characteristics  that  he  cared  more  for  "  the  habit  of  observ- 
ing than  for  the  matter  of  observation." 

10.  Encouraging  Curiositi/  gives  Culture  to  Perception. 
— The  curiosity  of  children  should  not  only  be  aroused, 
but  they  should  also  be  taught  how  that  curiosity  may  be 
gratified.  A  habit  of  inquiry  as  to  the  nature  and  uses 
of  objects  with  which  the  child  meets  will  greatly  aid  in 
giving  valuable  culture  to  the  power  of  perception. 

Culture  of  Memory. 

Memory  is  that  power  of  the  mind  by  which  we  retain 
and  recall  knowledge.  Some  writers  claim  that  the  word 
"memory,"  as  here  defined,  includes  two  faculties — mem- 
ory and  recollection.  For  our  present  purpose  it  is 
sufficient  to  consider  the  two  as  included  in  the  term 
"  memory."  In  the  order  of  mental  development  mem- 
ory follows  perception.  Perception  enables  us  to  gain 
knowledge  through  the  senses ;  memory  enables  us  to 
retain  that  knowledo-e  and  recall  it  at  will. 


•»" 


Suggestions  on  the  Culture  of  Memory. — 1.  Close  Atten- 
tion is  Necessary  to  the  Culture  of  Memory. — Attention  is 
the  first  requisite  to  an  accurate  memory.  The  heedless 
student  gets  only  a  partial  knowledge,  and  even  this  is 
soon  lost. 

2.  Memory  is  Strengthened  by  Use. — All  mental  powers 
aie  strengthened  by  exercise,  but  this  is  specially  true  of 


:\IEriIODS    OF    CULTURE,  411 

mcniorv.  The  memory  unemployed  becomes  weakened 
iind  unreliable.  Every  oue  in  his  own  callino-  finds  that 
his  memory  is  most  reliable  with  reference  to  that  which 
gives  this  faculty  the  most  exercise. 

3.  Tlie  Memory  should  be  Trusted. — The  student  who 
trusts  to  |)cn  or  pencil  for  what  he  ought  to  remember 
will  soon  find  his  memory  comparatively  worthless.  They 
who  desire  a  reliable  memory  must  trust  it  and  train  it  to 
ready  obedience  in  recalling  knowledge. 

4.  Iniercstiuff  Knowledge  Aids  Memorij- Culture — The 
knowledge  which  we  recall  most  readily  is  that  which 
makes  the  dee[)est  impression  on  us,  because  of  the  in- 
terest which  it  arouses  in  the  mind. 

5.  Memory- Culture  is  Aided  by  connecting  Knowledge 
according  to  Laics  of  Association. — A  thouglit  is  often 
recalled  the  more  readily  because  of  its  association  with 
some  other  thought  which  has  preceded  it  in  the  mind. 
Thoughts  suggest  one  another  by  the  laws  of  association. 

6.  Frequent  Repetition  Aids  in  Memory-Culture. — The 
more  frequently  a  statement  is  repeated  the  more  firmly 
is  it  impressed  on  the  mind.  Tt  is  this  fact  that  makes 
reviews  valuable,  and  the  more  frequent  these  reviews 
on  points  difficult  to  remember  the  more  valuable  will 
they  be. 

7.  The  Memory  is  Strengthened  by  the  Methodical  Ar- 
rangement of  Knowledge  in  the  Mind. — Facts  may  be 
arranged  according  to  the  subjects  to  which  they  relate, 
or  according  to  any  methodical  principle  or  association. 
Disconnected  and  isolatetl  facts  are  always  the  most  dif- 
ficult to  remember.  ■ 

8.  The  3Iemory  is  Cultured  by  Memorizing  Choice  Prose 
or  Poetical  Extracts. — This  practice  will  also  give  valuable 


412  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

culture  ill  language.  The  exercise  may  be  extended  to 
include  dialogues,  descriptions,  and  even  definitions,  piD- 
vided  the  pupils  comprehend  what  they  commit, 

9.  Original  Thought  Aids  3Iemory- Culture. — Pupils 
should  be  permitted  to  do  their  own  thinking.  When- 
ever the  teacher  offers  assistance  to  a  pupil  who  can  help 
himself  he  violates  the  laws  of  mental  culture  and  does 
the  pupil  a  great  injury. 

10.  Clear  Apprehension  Aids  Memory-  Culture. — AVhen 
the  learner  grasps  a  thought  his  apprehension  of  it  sliould 
be  clear  and  distinct ;  otller^visc,  when  he  comes  to  recall 
his  knowledge  there  will  be  no  response. 

11.  Local  Association  Aids  3Iemory- Culture. — We  are 
often  enabled  to  recall  a  statement  because  of  its  location 
on  a  particular  part  of  the  printed  page.  This  power  to 
remember  by  location  is  sometimes  known  as  eye-memory. 
It  is  of  special  advantage  in  such  subjects  as  spelling,  where 
it  is  desirable  to  remember  form. 

Culture  of  Emagination. 

Imagination  is  the  power  of  mind  by  which  we  form 
ideal  thoughts  and  conceptions.  It  seizes  upon  the 
knowledge  furnished  by  perception,  and  creates  pictures 
— not  real,  as  recalled  by  memory,  but  ideal.  It  follows 
memory  in  the  order  of  mental  develo2)ment,  and  it  may 
receive  culture  at  a  very  early  period  of  the  child's  life. 
This  culture  may  be  necessary  to  make  a  sluggish  imag- 
ination more  active  or  to  chasten  an  imagination  already 
too  vivid. 

Suggestions  on  the  Culture  of  the  Imagination. — 1.  The 
Imagination  may  be  Cidtared  by  Studying  Nature. — Hills, 


METHODS   OF   CULTURE.  413 

rocks,  rivers,  mountains,  and  other  beautifil  and  j)ietur- 
esque  scenery — the  ocean,  the  firmament  studded  with 
stars  at  night,  and  all  else  that  is  grand  in  the  M'orks  of 
Nature — may  be  made  to  aid  in  giving  culture  to  this 
facultv. 

2.  The  Imagination  may  he  Cultured  hy  Studying  Worlcs 
of  Art. — Beautiful  engravings,  beautiful  paintings,  beau- 
tiful statuary,  and  pleasing  music,  may  all  be  made  to 
sive  cuhuro  to  the  imacjination. 

3.  The  Lnrirjination  may  be  Cultured  by  the  Study  of 
Imaginative  Literature. — Poetry,  fiction,  and  all  other 
literature  in  which  the  writer  embodies  his  own  ideals 
in  ele^rant  and  beautiful  lano-uaire,  mav  be  made  to 
serve  an  excellent  purpose  in  giving  culture  to  the 
imatrination. 

4.  T/ic  Imagination  may  be  Cultured  hy  Creating  Images 
of  our  Own. — These  images  may  be  either  literary  or  ar- 
tistic. The  student  may  be  led  to  draw  ideal  pictures,  or 
he  may  be  permitted  to  describe  imaginary  scenes,  relate 
imaginary  incidents,  or  even  write  fictitious  stories.  The 
exercise  will  be  of  practical  value  in  giving  culture  to  the 
imagination,  while  it  also  affords  culture  in  language. 

5.  The  Imagination  Needs  Oiasfening  as  well  as 
Strengthening. — Images  must  be  appropriate.  The 
imaci^ination  must  be  used  in  subordination  to  the  die- 
tates  of  a  good  taste  and  sound  judgment.  A  vivid 
imagination  unaccompanied  by  a  discriminating  taste  is 
a  dangerous  power.  The  grotesque  and  fantastic  prod- 
ucts of  the  savage's  imagination  differ  from  the  pure 
and  pleasing  images  of  the  cultured  scholar's  mind 
chleflv  as  the  taste  of  the  one  differs  in  culture  from 
that  of  the  other. 


414  METnODS   OF   TEACHING. 

Culture  of  the  Understanding. 
The  understanding  is  that  power  of  tlie  intellect  by 
which  we  derive,  through  comparison,  ne^v  truths  and 
ideas.  The  term  as  here  used  is  synonymous  with  the 
expression  "  reasoning  powers."  The  work  of  the 
understanding  consists  iu  producing  new  truths  and 
ideas  from  tiie  materials  furnished  by  the  other  men- 
tal faculties.  This  faculty  embraces  the  forms  of  men- 
tal activity  known  as  Abstraction,  Classification,  Gener- 
alization, Judgment,  and  Keasoning. 


Suggestions  on  the  Culture  of  the  Understanding. — 1. 
The  Understanding  may  be  Cultured  by  the  Pursuit  of 
such  Studies  as  require  Reasoning. — This,  like  the  other 
mental  faculties,  is  strengthened  l)y  use.  All  studies 
that  give  practice  in  reasoning  will,  therefore,  prove 
useful  in  streno-thening  the  understanding.  Among  the 
most  important  of  these  studies  are  Arithmetic,  Gram- 
mar, Geometry,  Physical  Science,  Logic,  etc. 

2.  The  Understanding  may  be  Cultured  by  Arranging 
our  Knowledge  in  Logical  Order. — ^Ve  reason  correctly 
only  as  we  proceed  from  thought  to  thought,  each  of 
which  is  logically  dependent  on  the  other.  This  logical 
order  or  dependence  in  thought  may  be  that  of  means 
and  end,  cause  and  result,  reason  and  consequent,  jiart 
aud  whole,  premise  and  conclusion,  etc. 

3.  Studies  should  be  Arranged  to  give  Cidture  in  both 
Inductive  and  Deductive  Reasoning. — Rules  in  mathe- 
matics and  laws  iu  physical  science  should  be  reached 
inductively.  The  application  of  these  laws  and  prin- 
ciples in  experiments  aud  solutions  will  afford  practice 
in  deductive  reasoninor. 


METHODS   OF   CULTURE.  415 

4.  Forensic  Discussion  will  give  Culture  to  the  Under- 
standing.— The  proof  of  facts  by  probable  argumcnls 
or  by  "circumstantial  evidence"  affords  a  wide  field  ibr 
probable  reasoning,  and  is  thus  an  excellent  means  of 
broadeninir  the  understand! na^.  Too  much  cannot  be 
said  in  favor  of  debates  and  discussions  as  a  means  of 
strengthening  the  reasoning  powers. 

5.  The  S(ude7it  should  have  Practice  in  both  Demon- 
strative and  Probable  Peasoning. — The  first  deals  en- 
tirely with  necessary  truth,  and  is  liable  to  make  one 
arbitrary  in  his  conclusions;  the  second  deals  with  con- 
tingent truth,  and  serves  to  modify  the  positiveness  of 
conclusions  incident  to  demonstrative  reasoning.  Each 
is  necessary  to  produce  a  well-balanced  mind. 

G.  That  Culture  of  the  Understanding  is  most  Valuable 
tvhich  Leads  the  Mind  to  Search  for  Trxdh. — Wo  may 
confound  an  opponent  by  making  untruthful  statements 
in  argument,  but  we  give  no  culture  to  the  understand- 
ing, and  we  certainlv  weaken  our  moral  influence  more 
and  more  Avith  every  such  statement  made.  The  judg- 
ment is  convinced  not  M-ith  sophistry,  but  by  argument 
stated  in  such  a  losfical  wav  that  the  conclusiveness  of  it 
cannot  be  questioned. 


TH2   END. 


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